Ancient Indian Civilization

1. The Stone Age in India

The Stone Age in India is divided into several phases, each characterized by different tools and cultural developments. It represents the earliest period of human existence in the Indian subcontinent, marked by the use of stone tools for survival.

2. Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

The Old Stone Age or the Paleolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age, a geological period characterized by cycles of glaciations.

• The Pleistocene period commenced approximately before 10,000 years ago.
• In India, the first human occupation, as suggested by stone tools, is not earlier than the Middle Pleistocene, which perhaps began about 500,000 years ago.
• During the Pleistocene period, ice sheets covered a great portion of the earth's surface, particularly in higher altitudes and their peripheries.
• People were primarily hunter-gatherers, living a nomadic life. They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire (initially), or pottery.

2.1. Phases in the Paleolithic Age

The Old Stone or the Paleolithic Age in India is divided into three phases: Early or Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper Paleolithic.

• Lower Paleolithic:
  • Characterized by hand-axes and cleavers, similar to those found in Western Asia, Europe, and Africa.
  • Sites are found in the Soan Valley in Punjab (now in Pakistan) and the Belan Valley in Uttar Pradesh, as well as sites in the Thar Desert, the Potwar Plateau, and parts of Central and Peninsular India (e.g., Pallavaram in Tamil Nadu).
  • Tools were typically large and crude.
• Middle Paleolithic:
  • Characterized by flake tools, including scrapers made of flakes.
  • Sites are found in the Soan Valley, Narmada River valleys, and the Belan Valley.
  • Tools became smaller, lighter, and more specialized.
• Upper Paleolithic:
  • Less humid phase coinciding with the last phase of the Ice Age.
  • Caves and rock shelters discovered at Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) show evidence of continuous human occupation through this period and beyond.
  • Tools include hand-axes, cleavers, blades, and scrapers. Blade tools became more prominent.
  • Evidence of early rock art in some sites.

3. The Late Stone Age (Mesolithic Age / Middle Stone Age)

• The Upper Paleolithic Age ended with the Ice Age around 8000 BC, leading to the Mesolithic Age or Late Stone Age.
• In India, it started about 8000 BC and continued up to about 4000 BC.
• Characteristic tools are microliths (small, pointed, sharp-edged stone tools, often hafted to bone or wood to create composite tools).
• Sites are found in Chotanagpur, Central India (e.g., Adamgarh, Bhimbetka), and south of the river Krishna (e.g., Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bagor in Rajasthan).
• This period saw a transition towards warmer climates, leading to changes in flora and fauna.
• Early evidence of domestication of animals (e.g., dogs) and rudimentary pottery has been found at some sites.

4. The New Stone Age (Neolithic Age)

• The New Stone Age began around 7000 BC in some parts of India (like Mehrgarh), but Neolithic settlements in India are not older than 6000 BC in most areas.
• It represents a revolutionary period marked by the advent of agriculture and settled life.
• Tools and implements consisted of polished stone tools, particularly stone axes, used for cultivation and other settled activities.
• Neolithic settlements are found in Kashmir at Burzahom (known for pit dwellings and use of bone tools), and in other regions across India.
• Other important sites include Chirand (Bihar), Maski (Karnataka), Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Hallur (Karnataka), and others in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, as well as parts of North-Eastern India (e.g., Daojali Hading in Assam).
• Neolithic settlers were agriculturists, cultivating cereals (like wheat, barley, rice) and domesticating animals (cattle, sheep, goats).
• They lived in circular or rectangular houses, often made of mud and reed.
• They also cultivated cereals and domesticated animals, requiring pots for storage and cooking, leading to the development of pottery.
• The people of the Stone Age faced limitations due to their reliance on stone tools, restricting settlements to hilly river valleys where stone was readily available.

5. Beyond the Stone Age: Transition to Metals (Value-added)

5.1. Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age) (~3000 BC - 1500 BC)

• This period marks the transition from the exclusive use of stone tools to the use of copper along with stone tools.
• It represents the first use of metal by humans.
• Chalcolithic cultures were largely rural, based on settled agriculture and animal rearing.
• Key Characteristics:
  • Use of copper tools, often alongside stone tools.
  • Villages were often fortified.
  • Knowledge of spinning and weaving.
  • Different types of pottery, often painted.
• Important Sites: Ahar-Banas culture (Rajasthan), Malwa culture (Madhya Pradesh), Jorwe culture (Maharashtra) are prominent examples.

6. The Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) (Value-added)

This is one of the world's earliest and most advanced urban civilizations, contemporaneous with Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt.

• Period: Roughly 2500 BC to 1900 BC (Mature Harappan Phase).
• Discovery: Excavated in the 1920s, with major sites like Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) and Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan) being discovered first.
• Key Features:
  • Urban Planning: Well-planned cities with a grid system, sophisticated drainage systems, and often a citadel and a lower town.
  • Architecture: Use of standardized burnt bricks. Great Bath and Granaries at Mohenjo-Daro are notable.
  • Trade: Extensive internal and external trade networks (with Mesopotamia, Oman, etc.).
  • Crafts: Advanced craftsmanship in pottery, metallurgy (copper, bronze, gold, silver), bead-making, and seal carving.
  • Seals: Numerous seals with animal motifs and undeciphered script have been found.
  • Script: Pictographic script, not yet deciphered.
  • Religion: Evidence of worship of a Mother Goddess, Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Shiva), tree worship, and animal worship. No clear evidence of temples.
  • Social Organization: Appears to be highly organized with a centralized administration.
• Important Sites in India:
  • Lothal (Gujarat): Known for its dockyard, suggesting maritime trade.
  • Kalibangan (Rajasthan): Evidence of ploughed field, fire altars.
  • Dholavira (Gujarat): Unique water management system, tripartite division of the city.
  • Rakhigarhi (Haryana): One of the largest Harappan sites.
  • Banawali (Haryana): Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures.
• Decline: Various theories proposed, including climatic change, deforestation, floods, shifting river courses, and Aryan invasion (now largely discredited). The decline was likely multifaceted and gradual.