Ancient Indian Art and Architecture

1. Introduction to Ancient Indian Art and Architecture

In Ancient India, works of art were related to work processes of daily life and were not exclusively produced for a privileged group of society. They are found in the forms of rock paintings, terracotta figurines, toys, etc. Gradually, works of art manufactured by specialist craftsmen came to be produced for exclusive purposes.

The Mauryan period witnessed the production of splendid specimens of art by the state. With the emergence of social groups who could extend substantial patronage for the production of specimens of art, new trends in art activities came about.

In the post-Mauryan period, patronage by different social groups was the main reason behind the phenomenon that art activities became so widespread all over India and beyond; it was no longer high art exclusively patronized by the state. There was also, from the Mauryan period onward, a shift toward using non-perishable material, i.e., stone as a medium of creative expression.

There was also constant interaction in this period with those art forms that flourished beyond the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. Various schools of art emerged. In this unit, we shall discuss the main characteristics of Gandhara and Mathura art forms along with those of Sarnath and Amaravati.

Most of the art forms were inspired by Buddhism and Jainism, and very few Brahmanical monuments are to be found. This unit also takes into account the architectural and sculptural aspects of various Stupas, Viharas, and caves, etc.

2. Background: Mauryan Period (c. 322-185 BCE)

During the Mauryan period, sculpture and architecture had reached a developed stage. The Mauryan art can be broadly divided into court art and popular art.

• Court Art: Patronized by the state, primarily under Emperor Ashoka.
  • Ashokan Pillars: A unique feature of the specimens of Mauryan art fashioned in stone is the polish and the smooth, glassy surface not to be found during any other period. These monolithic pillars, often topped with animal capitals, carried Ashoka's edicts.
    • Components: Shaft (monolithic), Capital (lotus or bell-shaped abacus), Crowning Animals (lion, bull, elephant).
    • Symbolism: Dharma Chakra Pravartana (turning the wheel of law).
    • Examples: Sarnath Lion Capital (National Emblem of India), Rampurva Bull Capital, Lauriya Nandangarh.
  • Palaces: The Mauryan Imperial art declined and new forms of art emerged. We have references about the construction of Stupas during the Mauryan period from the accounts of Fa-heing, Hiuen-Tsang, and in Buddhist literature.
    • Chandragupta Maurya's wooden palace from Megasthenes' excavations at Pataliputra have revealed wooden walls and columns, reflecting grand imperial architecture.
  • Stupas: Early stupas like those at Sanchi, Sarnath, and Taxila were built during the Mauryan period, and additions were made to them in the later period.
• Popular Art: Independent of royal patronage.
  • Terracotta Figurines: The practice of producing terracotta figurines on a substantial scale continued. These indicate that artistic creations were not confined to the Imperial level alone. They often represented Mother Goddesses, animals, and toys.
  • Yakshas and Yakshinis: Monumental stone images of Yakshas and Yakshinis (folk deities) are found from different sites (e.g., Didarganj Yakshini from Patna). This superb art piece tells us about the hairstyle, ornaments, and dress of women during that period.

3. Post-Mauryan Period (c. 200 BCE - 300 CE)

This period saw the proliferation of art forms due to the patronage of various social groups, including merchants, guilds, and Buddhist/Jain monastic orders. There was a shift from wood to more durable stone as the primary medium.

3.1. Stupa Architecture

• Stupas were burial mounds that contained relics of the Buddha or Buddhist monks. They became objects of worship.
• Elements: Anda (hemispherical dome), Harmika (square railing on top), Chhatra (umbrella-like structure), Vedika (circumambulatory path), Toranas (ornamental gateways).
• Examples:
  • Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh): Originally built by Ashoka, but the stone casing, balustrades, and elaborate gateways (Toranas) with Jataka tales sculptures were added during the Sunga and Satavahana periods.
  • Bharhut Stupa (Madhya Pradesh): Known for its early Buddhist sculptures depicting Jataka stories and various deities, characterized by flat reliefs.
  • Amaravati Stupa (Andhra Pradesh): Built under Satavahana patronage, made of white marble. Known for its dynamic and narrative sculptures.

3.2. Chaitya (Prayer Hall) and Vihara (Monastery) Architecture

• These were primarily rock-cut structures, especially in Western India.
• Chaityas: Rectangular prayer halls with a stupa at one end, meant for congregation and worship.
  • Example: Karla Caves (Maharashtra), Bhaja Caves.
• Viharas: Monastic dwellings, usually multi-storied, for monks to live and study. They consisted of cells surrounding a central courtyard.
  • Example: Nashik Caves.

3.3. Schools of Sculpture

There was constant interaction with art forms from outside the Indian subcontinent, leading to the emergence of distinct schools of art.

• Gandhara School of Art (North-Western India, c. 50 BCE - 500 CE):
  • Influence: Strong Greco-Roman influence (Hellenistic art).
  • Material: Grey sandstone.
  • Characteristics: Realistic depiction of Buddha with wavy hair, drapery with folds, muscular body, and often with moustaches. Apollo-like facial features.
  • Patronage: Primarily Kushan rulers.
• Mathura School of Art (Uttar Pradesh, c. 1st - 3rd CE):
  • Influence: Indigenous style, drawing from earlier Yaksha figures.
  • Material: Red sandstone.
  • Characteristics: Buddha depicted with a smiling face, shaven head (or short curly hair), thick lips, and a powerful, vibrant body. Sensuous and earthly feel. Both seated and standing figures.
  • Patronage: Primarily Kushan rulers.
  • Produced images of Hindu and Jain deities as well.
• Sarnath School of Art (Uttar Pradesh, c. 4th - 6th CE - Gupta Period):
  • Influence: Derived from Mathura, but evolved into a more refined and spiritual style during the Gupta period.
  • Characteristics: Buddha's figure is slender, elongated, with a serene expression. Absence of drapery folds (wet drapery look). The halo behind the head is intricately decorated. Known for its perfect balance and harmony.
  • Material: Chunar sandstone.
• Amaravati School of Art (Andhra Pradesh, c. 2nd BCE - 3rd CE):
  • Influence: Indigenous, distinct style.
  • Material: White marble.
  • Characteristics: Sculptures are characterized by narrative panels, dynamic movements, graceful human figures, and a sense of emotional depth. Highly active and crowded compositions.
  • Patronage: Satavahanas and Ikshvakus.

4. Art and Architecture during the Gupta Period (c. 319-550 CE) (Value-added)

The Gupta period is considered the Golden Age of Indian art and architecture, characterized by refinement, classicism, and emphasis on spirituality.

• Temple Architecture: Emergence of free-standing structural temples for Hindu deities.
  • Key Features: Flat roofs initially, then gradually evolved with Shikharas (spires). Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and Mandapa (hall).
  • Examples: Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh (UP), Bhitargaon Brick Temple (UP), Parvati Temple at Nachna Kuthara (MP).
• Sculpture: Marked by a sense of inner peace, divine beauty, and balanced proportions.
  • Sarnath Buddha image is a prime example of Gupta sculpture.
  • Metallurgical excellence is seen in the Sultanaganj Buddha (copper, 7.5 ft tall) and the Delhi Iron Pillar.
• Painting: Flourished, especially mural paintings.
  • Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): Famous for stunning mural paintings depicting Jataka tales (stories of Buddha's previous lives), Buddhist deities, and scenes from daily life. Used tempera technique.
  • Bagh Caves (Madhya Pradesh): Similar to Ajanta, but with a more secular theme.

5. Cave Architecture (Post-Gupta onwards) (Value-added)

• Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): Features Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain rock-cut temples and monasteries, demonstrating religious harmony. Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) is a monolithic rock-cut marvel.
• Elephanta Caves (Maharashtra): Primarily dedicated to Lord Shiva, known for the magnificent Trimurti (three-faced Shiva) sculpture.

6. Terracotta Art (Value-added)

Terracotta figurines continued to be popular from the Mauryan period through the Gupta period, evolving in style and sophistication.

• Used for religious figures, daily life representations, animals, and decorative purposes.
• They provide insights into the common people's art and religious beliefs.

Ancient Indian art and architecture reflect a rich tapestry of religious beliefs, cultural exchanges, and evolving artistic techniques, providing invaluable insights into the civilization's history and ethos.