The Early Medieval Period in India

1. Introduction

The early medieval period in Indian history marks the growth of cultivation and organization of land relations through land grants. These grants began around the beginning of the Christian era and covered practically the entire subcontinent by the end of the twelfth century. In the early medieval period, agricultural expansion meant a greater and more regular use of advanced agricultural techniques, plough cultivation, and irrigation technology. Institutional management of agricultural processes, control of means of production, and new relations of production also played an important role in this expansion. With this expansion, new types of rural tensions also emerged. Commercial activities in agricultural and non-agricultural commodities also increased.

2. Agrarian Economy

The agrarian expansion, which began with the establishment of brahmadeya and agrahara settlements through land grants to Brahmanas from the fourth century onwards, acquired a uniform and universal form in subsequent centuries.
The centuries between the eighth and twelfth witnessed the processes of this expansion and the culmination of an agrarian organization based on land grants to religious and secular beneficiaries, i.e., Brahmanas, temples, and officers of the King's government.
However, there are important regional variations in this development, both due to geographical as well as ecological factors.
Cultivation was extended not only to the hitherto virgin lands but even by clearing forest areas. This was a continuous process and a major feature of early medieval agricultural economy.
There is a view prevalent among some scholars that land grants started in outlying, backward, and tribal areas first and later gradually extended to the Ganga valley, which was the hub of the brahmanical culture. In the backward and aboriginal tracts, the Brahmanas could spread new methods of cultivation by regulating agricultural processes through specialized knowledge of the seasons (astronomy), plough, irrigation, etc., as well as by protecting the cattle wealth. However, this is not true of all regions in India, for land grants were also made in areas of settled agriculture as well as in other ecological zones, especially for purposes of integrating them into a new economic order.
Ideas relating to the gift of land emphasize the importance of dana or gift. The idea of dana or gift to Brahmanas was developed by Brahmanical texts as the surest means of acquiring merit (punya) and destroying sin (pataka). It appears to be a conscious and systematic attempt to provide means of subsistence to the Brahmana.
Gifts of cultivable land to them and registration of gifts of land on copper plates are recommended by all the Smriti and Purana of the post-Gupta centuries.
Among the gifts are also included the plough, corn, oven, and ploughshare. However, the gift of land was considered to be the best of all types of gifts made to the learned Brahmana.
Imprecations against the destruction of such gifts and the resumption of land donated to the Brahmana ensured their perpetuity. Thus, land grants began to follow and set legal formulae systematized through Law books.

3. Value-Added Points: Broader Context of Early Medieval Period (c. 750 - 1200 CE)

3.1. Political Fragmentation and Regional Kingdoms

This period is characterized by the absence of a single dominant imperial power and the rise of numerous regional kingdoms.
Tripartite Struggle: For control over Kannauj (a symbol of imperial power in North India), three major powers constantly fought:
- Palas (Eastern India): Ruled Bengal and Bihar. Important rulers: Dharmapala, Devapala. Patrons of Buddhism (e.g., Vikramashila University).
- Pratiharas (Western and Northern India): Rose in Rajasthan and expanded into Gangetic plains. Important rulers: Nagabhata I, Mihira Bhoja.
- Rashtrakutas (Deccan): Overthrew Chalukyas of Badami. Important rulers: Dantidurga, Dhruva, Amoghavarsha. Known for the Kailasa Temple at Ellora.
Other North Indian Kingdoms: Rise of various Rajput clans (Chahamanas/Chauhans, Paramaras, Solankis, Chandellas, Tomaras, Gahadavalas).
South Indian Kingdoms:
- Chalukyas of Kalyan: Successors to Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.
- Pallavas: Ruled parts of Tamil Nadu, known for their temple architecture.
- Cholas: Became a dominant naval and political power in South India and Southeast Asia (Imperial Cholas). Rajaraja I and Rajendra I were prominent rulers.
- Pandyas, Cheras, Hoysalas, Kakatiyas: Other significant regional powers.

3.2. Feudalism and Land Grants (Samantas)

The system of land grants led to the emergence of a decentralized political structure often termed as 'Indian Feudalism'.
Kings granted land (along with administrative and judicial rights) to Brahmins, religious institutions, and military chiefs (Samantas/Mahasamantas) in lieu of services.
This led to the fragmentation of political authority and weakened the central power, as these land grantees exercised significant local control.

3.3. Social Changes

Proliferation of Castes: Growth in the number of castes (Jatis) due to the assimilation of tribal groups into the Varna system and the rise of new occupational groups.
Decline of Trade and Urbanization: Some scholars argue for a decline in long-distance trade and a period of 'de-urbanization' in certain regions, though this is debated. The agrarian expansion might have contributed to a more localized economy.
Rise of Regional Languages and Cultures: This period witnessed the development and flourishing of distinct regional languages (e.g., Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Marathi, Bengali) and regional cultural identities.

3.4. Religious Developments

Bhakti Movement: Gained prominence in South India and gradually spread north. It emphasized devotion (Bhakti) to a personal God as the path to salvation, accessible to all, irrespective of caste.
- Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) were prominent figures in South India.
Growth of Puranic Hinduism: Popularity of deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi increased. Puranas became important religious texts.
Decline of Buddhism: Faced decline in many parts of India due to competition from resurgent Hinduism (Bhakti movement), internal corruption in monastic orders, and later, destruction by Turkic invaders.
Jainism: Continued to thrive, especially in parts of South India (Karnataka) and Gujarat.

3.5. Art and Architecture

This period saw the development of distinctive regional styles of temple architecture:
- North Indian (Nagara) Style: Characterized by curvilinear shikhara (spire) and elaborate sculptures. Examples include Khajuraho Temples (Chandellas), Konark Sun Temple (Eastern Ganga), Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar, Odisha).
- South Indian (Dravidian) Style: Characterized by pyramidal vimana (tower over sanctum), gopurams (ornate gateway towers), and elaborate pillared halls. Examples include Brihadeeswarar Temple (Chola), Shore Temple (Pallava).
- Vesara Style: A hybrid style combining elements of both Nagara and Dravidian, prominent in the Deccan (e.g., Chalukyas of Kalyan, Hoysalas).
Sculpture: Continued to flourish with regional variations, often depicting deities and mythological narratives.