The Expansion of British Rule in Inida

1. Introduction: From Trade to Empire

The East India Company, which started initially as a trading company, had, by 1773, acquired territorial control over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madras, and Bombay.
The Nawabs of Awadh and Carnatic were their dependents.
After 1765, the East India Company had to face stiff opposition from the Marathas, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and the Sikhs.
The Company had to subjugate these powers to establish its paramountcy in India.

2. The Conquest of Mysore (Anglo-Mysore Wars)

The State of Mysore was ruled by Haidar Ali, a brilliant general, an able administrator, and a shrewd diplomat.
While the Carnatic was plagued by wars and Bengal was passing through a period of political turmoil, Haidar Ali steadily rose to power in Mysore. He extended his kingdom up to the Krishna River.
Mysore, under Haidar Ali, became a source of danger to the rising British power in India. Between 1767 and 1799, the Company waged four wars to destroy the power of Mysore.

2.1. The First Mysore War (1767-1769 A.D.)

Causes: British attempts to assert influence in Carnatic, Maratha-Nizam-Haidar Ali conflicts.
In 1769 A.D., Haidar Ali defeated the British in the First Anglo-Mysore War and besieged Madras.
The English were forced to sign a treaty according to which they promised to come to Haidar Ali's help if he was attacked by another power in the future.
This treaty undoubtedly raised the prestige of Haidar Ali.

2.2. The Second Mysore War (1780-1784 A.D.)

Causes: English failure to help Haidar Ali as per treaty when attacked by Marathas, British capture of French port of Mahe (an ally of Haidar).
In 1771 the Marathas attacked Haidar Ali but the English did not help him in spite of their promise.
Haidar Ali waited for an opportunity to take revenge. When the English attacked and occupied the French port of Mahe, the only outlet for Mysore's trade with Europe, Haidar Ali declared war on them.
In the Second Anglo-Mysore War (A.D. 1780–1784) the Nizam and the Marathas started as allies of Haidar Ali but later on went over to the English side.
Haidar Ali swept through the Carnatic, captured Arcot, and threatened Madras.
But the British army under Eyre Coote defeated Haidar Ali at Porto Novo and saved Madras.
After Haidar Ali's death in 1782, the war was carried on by his son Tipu Sultan.
The war came to an end by the Treaty of Mangalore (1784 A.D.). The prisoners of war and the conquered territories were mutually returned.

2.3. The Third Mysore War (1790-1792 A.D.)

Causes: Tipu Sultan's attack on Travancore (an ally of the British), jealousy of the Nizam and Marathas towards Tipu's growing power.
The Nizam and the Marathas who were jealous of Tipu's growing power joined the English.
Lord Cornwallis defeated Tipu and forced him to sign the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792 A.D.
According to this treaty:
- Tipu had to surrender half of his kingdom which was divided among the English and their allies i.e., the Maratha and the Nizam.
- Tipu had to pay a huge war indemnity of 330 lakhs of rupees.
- Besides, Tipu had to hand over two of his sons to the English as hostages.
The Third Anglo-Mysore War destroyed Tipu's dominant position in the south and firmly established English supremacy there. This war also revealed that the Indian powers were shortsighted enough to aid a foreign power against another Indian power for the sake of temporary gains.

2.4. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799 A.D.)

Causes: Tipu's refusal to accept Subsidiary Alliance, his attempts to seek foreign aid (French), British determination to establish complete paramountcy.
A man like Tipu could not forget the humiliation of his defeat in the Third Anglo-Mysore War. He began preparations for a trial of strength with the English. He began to add to the fortification of his capital, improve his cavalry, and discipline his infantry. He also tried to enlist the support of the French to oust the British from the south.
Lord Wellesley was determined to prevent French re-entry into India. He asked Tipu Sultan to enter into a subsidiary alliance accepting British sovereignty. On Tipu's spirited refusal, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War started (A.D. 1799). The Nizam joined the English.
Tipu died fighting. Half of Tipu's kingdom was annexed and divided between the English and the Nizam. The other half was given to a child of the old Hindu royal family which had been overthrown by Haider Ali.
Tipu's family was exiled to Vellore. The new ruler of Mysore became a subordinate ally of the British. British supremacy over southern India was established.
It had taken the English 32 years to subjugate Mysore. The threat of French revival in the Deccan was permanently eliminated.

3. The Collapse of the Marathas (Anglo-Maratha Wars)

The Marathas had established a powerful empire in the southwestern part of India.
After the defeat at Panipat in 1761, Maratha power was split into five different virtually independent centers of power: The Peshwa (Poona/Pune), Gaekwad (Baroda), Bhonsle (Nagpur), Holkar (Indore), and Sindhia (Gwalior).
The Peshwa was the head of the Maratha confederacy.
The Marathas made a remarkable recovery after the Battle of Panipat. Hence, it became imperative to confront the growing power of the English.
Four Anglo-Maratha wars were fought between 1775 and 1818.

3.1. The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782 A.D.)

Causes: A direct outcome of the involvement of the English in the internal politics of the Marathas, particularly the dispute over the Peshwaship between Madhav Rao II and Raghunath Rao (Raghoba).
A bitter struggle for Peshwaship between Madhav Rao II (the infant son of the murdered Peshwa, Narayan Rao) and Raghunath Rao (an uncle of Narayan Rao who had been responsible for his murder) prompted the East India Company to interfere in favor of the latter.
The Maratha chiefs were united under the leadership of Nana Fadnavis who supported the claim of the infant Peshwa Madhav Rao II.
The Maratha army defeated the British army sent from Bombay. Warren Hastings sent an army from Bengal. The war dragged on for 4 years. The Marathas won a decisive victory.
Results: The long war with the Marathas came to an end by the Treaty of Salbai (1782). It provided for the mutual restitution of each other's territories. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off. Madhav Rao II was recognized as the Peshwa. The British gained little out of this war except the island of Salsette.
However, the treaty inaugurated an era of 20 years of peace with the Marathas. The Company used this period to subjugate Mysore and strengthen their position in Bengal. But the Maratha chiefs frittered away their energy in bitter conflicts among themselves.

3.2. The Second Maratha War (1803 A.D. – 1805 A.D.)

Causes: Internal conflicts among the Maratha chiefs after the death of Madhav Rao II (Peshwa Baji Rao II succeeded him). Weakness of Baji Rao II.
After Madhav Rao II's death, Peshwa Baji Rao II succeeded him. He was a weak ruler. In spite of their internal conflicts, Mahadaji, Sindhia and Nana Fadnavis had succeeded in keeping the Marathas united. But after their death, the various Maratha chiefs, blind to the real danger from the rapidly increasing British power, were engaged in bitter strife with one another to control the Peshwa. This power struggle among them proved to be their undoing.
In 1802, when Holkar defeated the combined armies of Peshwa Baji Rao II and Sindhia, Baji Rao fled to Bassein and sought British protection. He accepted the subsidiary alliance and was installed in Poona by the Company.
Events: Alarmed by the growing power of the British, Sindhia and Bhonsle declared war against them. But their combined forces were defeated.
Results:
- Both Sindhia and Bhonsle had to accept all the terms of the subsidiary alliance. They had also to surrender large tracts of valuable land. An English Resident was posted in their territories.
- Holkar, who had remained neutral in the second Anglo-Maratha War, took up arms against the English. He was subsequently defeated and his capital Indore was captured.
- Wellesley's policy of conquest was proving to be very expensive for the Company. So he was recalled from India. Wellesley's successor George Barlow signed a peace treaty with Holkar in 1806. He restored his kingdom to Holkar. The defeat of the Marathas in the second Anglo-Maratha War was a severe blow to their power and prestige.

3.3. The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818 A.D.)

Causes: After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the Marathas made one last attempt to shake off the Company's yoke. Peshwa Baji Rao II began to resent the control of the British Resident.
Further, Lord Hastings forced him to renounce the headship of the Maratha confederacy and surrender more territory to the Company.
Events: The Third Anglo-Maratha War started in 1817 when the Peshwa, with the support of Bhonsle and Holkar, attacked and burnt down the British Residency in Kirkee near Pune. But the English decisively defeated them. Within a year the entire Maratha confederacy was subjugated.
Results:
- Peshwa Baji Rao II was deposed and deported to Bithur. But he was granted a pension of Rs 8 lakh a year. His territories were annexed.
- The hereditary post of Peshwa was abolished. A small state, Satara, was created out of the Peshwa's territories and a descendant of Shivaji was installed on the throne.
- The Maratha leaders ceded large portions of their territories to the English. All of them accepted the system of subsidiary alliance.
- The Marathas were the only Indian powers who were capable of succeeding the Mughals. They had risen to power with the decline of the Mughal Empire, but were nearly wiped out by the British. Only Punjab retained her independence.
Causes of Maratha Failure:
- The Maratha chiefs failed to unite even in times of crisis. The English took advantage of this disunity.
- By the end of the 18th century, the Marathas had lost some of their ablest leaders like Baji Rao I, Mahadaji Sindhia, or Nana Fadnavis.
- The Marathas lacked an efficient system of administration or a sound economic policy. The system of extorting chauth and sardeshmukhi made them lose the loyalty of the conquered people.
- The British were equipped with modern military techniques. With their outmoded methods of warfare, the Marathas were easily defeated by the English.

4. The Annexation of Punjab (Anglo-Sikh Wars)

The loose confederation of the Sikhs of Punjab was unified into a compact powerful unit by Ranjit Singh. He expanded his empire through conquests.
To check his advance beyond the Sutlej, the East India Company persuaded Ranjit Singh to sign the Treaty of Amritsar (1809). By this treaty, he promised not to expand east of the Sutlej and confine his conquests to the north.

4.1. The First Sikh War (1845-1846)

Causes: After Ranjit Singh's death, Punjab went through a period of chaos and confusion. The Khalsa army became very powerful. The British watched these developments and increased their military forces at the borders, possibly anticipating future war.
In 1843, Ranjit Singh's minor son, Dalip Singh, became the ruler with Rani Jindan as the Regent. To weaken the army and keep it engaged, Rani Jindan deliberately encouraged the army to cross the river Sutlej and attack the English. In December 1845, the Sikh army crossed the Sutlej and invaded the Company's territories. This led to the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846).
Events: The patriotic Sikh soldiers fought very bravely but they were completely defeated. The British army occupied Lahore.
Results:
- By the Treaty of Lahore (1846), the Sikhs ceded the Jalandhar Doab, Kashmir, and its dependencies to the English.
- A British Resident and a powerful British force were posted in Lahore. Kashmir was sold to Gulab Singh, a Dogra chief.
- By a supplementary treaty, it was decided that the Sikh state was to be ruled by a Council under the control of the British Resident. Rani Jindan was removed from her post.

4.2. The Second Sikh War (1848-1849)

Causes: British control over Punjab aroused a lot of resentment among the Sikhs. In 1848, a number of revolts against the British broke out in Punjab.
The Governor-General, Lord Dalhousie, declared war. The Sikh army which had been reduced by the Treaty of Lahore was completely crushed.
By a proclamation in 1849, Lord Dalhousie annexed the whole of Punjab to the British Empire. Dalip Singh was pensioned off.
Results: With the annexation of Punjab, the British conquest of India was almost complete. Only a few small states retained their independence or were turned into subsidiary allies.

5. Methods of Expansion of British Rule

Apart from wars, several Governor Generals followed other methods to ensure the Company's supremacy in India.

5.1. Subsidiary Alliance (Lord Wellesley, 1798)

Lord Wellesley perfected the system of subsidiary alliance to subjugate Indian powers without going through actual warfare.
Any Indian ruler whose security was threatened could enter into a subsidiary alliance with the British. The British promised to protect the ruler from external attack and internal revolt.
Features:
- The ruler would have to accept the supremacy of the British in India.
- The ruler would have to keep and pay for the maintenance of a certain number of British troops who would be permanently placed in the territory of the subsidiary ally.
- A British Resident would be posted in the court of the ruler.
- The Indian ruler was not allowed to employ any European in his service.
- The ruler would not sign any treaty or form an alliance with any other power without the permission of the British Resident.
Impact: The system of subsidiary alliance proved to be disastrous for the Indian rulers. They became virtual puppets in the hands of the British. The payment of huge amounts of money for the maintenance of British troops was a heavy drain on their resources. Indian states became impoverished while the British could maintain a portion of their army at the expense of Indian rulers.
States that accepted: Mysore, Hyderabad, Awadh, the Rajputs, and Marathas. Hyderabad was the first state to accept (1798).

5.2. Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie, 1848)

In 1848, Lord Dalhousie arrived in India as the Governor General. Dalhousie was determined to extend British rule over India. His imperialist policy was based on three fundamental principles, namely:
1. The expansion of territories by war.
2. The occupation of Indian states through the application of the Doctrine of Lapse.
3. The takeover of Indian states on grounds of maladministration.
Dalhousie occupied Punjab and Sindh through war.
He brought several subordinate states directly under the Company's rule by annexing them on the basis of the Doctrine of Lapse.
According to Indian tradition, a king adopted an heir to the throne if he did not have his own son. But by the Doctrine of Lapse, if the king of a subordinate state died without a natural male heir, then the kingdom would "lapse" to the British i.e., it would automatically pass into the hands of the British.
States annexed under this policy: Satara, Sambalpur, Jhansi, and Nagpur.
The families of the former rulers would be pensioned off. However, Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, was not given a pension.

5.3. Annexation on Grounds of Maladministration

On grounds of maladministration, Awadh was annexed in 1856. Nawab Wajid Ali was pensioned off and sent to Calcutta.
By 1856, the East India Company had brought the whole of India under its control. After this, no war was waged to expand the British Empire any further. Parts of the country that were under Indian rulers were effectively under British control.

6. The Revolt of 1857: The First War of Indian Independence

By the first half of the 19th century, the East India Company had brought major portions of India under its control. One hundred years after the Battle of Plassey, anger against the unjust and oppressive British Government took the form of a revolt that shook the very foundations of British rule in India. While British historians called it the Sepoy Mutiny, Indian historians named it the Revolt of 1857 or the First War of Indian Independence. The Revolt of 1857 had been preceded by a series of disturbances in different parts of the country from the late eighteenth century onwards.

6.1. Background of the Revolt (Early Uprisings)

The Sanyasi Rebellion in North Bengal and the Chunar rebellion in Bihar and Bengal broke out in the late eighteenth century.
There were several peasant uprisings in the mid-nineteenth century, the most important of which were those by the Moplah peasants of the Malabar and the Faraizi movement by Muslim peasants in Bengal.
The first half of the nineteenth century also witnessed a number of tribal revolts, including the Bhils of Madhya Pradesh, the Santhals of Bihar, and the Gonds and Khonds of Orissa.
However, all these disturbances were localized and did not pose any serious threat to the existence of the British Empire.

6.2. Causes of the Revolt

The first expression of organized resistance was the Revolt of 1857. It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the Company's army but eventually secured the participation of the masses. Its causes lay deeply embedded in the grievances that all sections of Indian society nurtured against British rule.

6.2.1. Political Causes

The political causes of the revolt may be traced to the British policy of expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation.
A large number of Indian rulers and chiefs were dislodged, thus arousing fear in the minds of other ruling families who apprehended a similar fate.
Rani Lakshmibai's adopted son was not permitted to sit on the throne of Jhansi.
Satara, Nagpur, and Jhansi were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse.
Jaitpur, Sambalpur, and Udaipur were also annexed. Other rulers feared that the annexation of their states was only a matter of time.
The refusal to continue the pension of Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Baji Rao II, created hostility among the ruling class.
Moreover, the sentiments of the people were hurt when it was declared that the descendants of the titular Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, would not be allowed to live in the Red Fort.
The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie on the pretext of maladministration left thousands of nobles, officials, retainers, and soldiers jobless. This measure converted Awadh, a loyal state, into a hotbed of discontent and intrigue.

6.2.2. Social and Religious Causes

A large section of the population was alarmed by the rapid spread of Western civilization in India.
An Act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu who had converted to Christianity to inherit his ancestral properties. Besides, the missionaries were allowed to make conversions to Christianity all over India. The people were convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians to Christianity.
The abolition of practices like Sati and female infanticide, and the legalization of widow remarriage, were threats to the established social structure. Even the introduction of the railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion.

6.2.3. Economic Causes

In rural areas, peasants and zamindars resented the heavy taxes on land and the stringent methods of revenue collection followed by the Company.
Many among these groups were unable to meet the heavy revenue demands and repay their loans to money lenders, eventually losing the lands that they had held for generations.
Large numbers of sepoys were drawn from the peasantry and had family ties in villages, so the grievances of the peasants also affected them.
The economic exploitation by the British and the complete destruction of the traditional economic structure caused widespread resentment among all sections of the people.
After the Industrial Revolution in England, there was an influx of British manufactured goods into India which ruined industries, particularly the textile industry, of India.
Indian handicraft industries had to compete with cheap machine-made goods from Britain. India was transformed into a supplier of raw materials and a consumer of goods manufactured in Britain.
All those people who previously depended on royal patronage for their livelihoods were rendered unemployed. So they bore a deep-seated grievance against the British.

6.2.4. Military Causes

The Revolt of 1857 started as a sepoy mutiny. It was only later on that other elements of society joined the revolt.
Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of British troops in India. They were considered inferior to British soldiers. An Indian sepoy was paid less than a European sepoy of the same rank. Besides, an Indian sepoy could not rise to a rank higher than that of a Subedar.
The extension of the British Empire in India had adversely affected the service conditions of Indian sepoys. They were required to serve in areas far away from their homes.
In 1856 Lord Canning issued the General Services Enlistment Act which required that the sepoys must be ready to serve even in British land across the sea.
The 'Bengal Army' was recruited from high caste communities in Awadh. They were not prepared to cross the ocean (Kala pani) which was forbidden as per Hindu religious beliefs. They developed the suspicion that the Government was trying to convert Indians to Christianity.
After the annexation of Awadh, the Nawab's army was disbanded. These soldiers lost their means of livelihood. They became bitter enemies of the British.

6.2.5. Immediate Cause

The Revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges.
A rumour spread that the cartridges of the new Enfield rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. Before loading these rifles, the sepoys had to bite off the paper on the cartridges. Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them.
Canning tried to make amends for the error and the offending cartridges were withdrawn, but by then the damage had been done. There was unrest in several places.
In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy in Barrackpore, had refused to use the cartridge and attacked his senior officers. He was hanged to death on 8th April.
On 9th May, 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle and were sentenced to ten years' imprisonment.

6.3. Main Events of the Revolt

6.3.1. Capture of Delhi

Soon there was a rebellion in the Meerut Cantonment. The Meerut Mutiny (May 9, 1857) marked the beginning of the Revolt of 1857.
The Indian sepoys in Meerut murdered their British officers and broke open the jail. On May 10, they marched to Delhi.
In Delhi, the mutineers were joined by the Delhi sepoys and the city came under their control. Next day, on 11th May, the sepoys proclaimed the ageing Bahadur Shah Zafar the Emperor of Hindustan. But Bahadur Shah was old and he could not give able leadership to the sepoys. The occupation of Delhi was short-lived.

6.3.2. Centres of the Revolt

The revolt spread over the entire area from the neighbourhood of Patna to the borders of Rajasthan. There were six main centres of revolt in these regions namely Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi, Gwalior, and Arrah in Bihar.
1. Lucknow: Lucknow was the capital of Awadh. There, the mutinous sepoys were joined by the disbanded soldiers from the old Awadh army. Begum Hazrat Mahal, one of the begums of the ex-king of Awadh, took up the leadership of the revolt. Finally, the British forces captured Lucknow. The queen escaped to Nepal.
2. Kanpur: In Kanpur, the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. He joined the revolt primarily because he was deprived of his pension by the British. He captured Kanpur and proclaimed himself the Peshwa. The victory was short-lived. Kanpur was recaptured by the British after fresh reinforcements arrived. The revolt was suppressed with terrible vengeance. The rebels were either hanged or blown to pieces by cannons. Nana Saheb escaped. But his brilliant commander Tantia Tope continued the struggle. Tantia Tope was finally defeated, arrested, and hanged.
3. Jhansi: In Jhansi, the twenty-two-year-old Rani Lakshmibai led the rebels when the British refused to accept the claim of her adopted son to the throne of Jhansi. She fought gallantly against the British forces. But she was ultimately defeated by the English. Rani Lakshmibai escaped. Later on, the Rani was joined by Tantia Tope and together they marched to Gwalior and captured it. Sindhia, a loyal ally of the British, was driven out. Fierce fighting followed. The Rani of Jhansi fought like a tigress. She died, fighting to the very end. Gwalior was recaptured by the British.
4. Bihar: In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh.

6.4. Suppression of the Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 lasted for more than a year. It was suppressed by the middle of 1858.
On July 8, 1858, fourteen months after the outbreak at Meerut, peace was finally proclaimed by Canning.
The British finally attacked Delhi in September. For six days there was desperate fighting. But by September 1857, the British reoccupied Delhi. Thousands of innocent people were massacred and hundreds were hanged. The old king was captured and later deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead. Thus ended the imperial dynasty of the Mughals.

6.5. Causes of the Failure of the Revolt

Limited Uprising: Although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the country remained unaffected by it. The revolt was mainly confined to the Doab region: Sind, Rajputana, Kashmir, most parts of Punjab. The southern provinces did not take part in it. It failed to have the character of an all-India struggle. Important rulers like Sindhia, Holkar, Rana of Jodhpur, and others did not support the rebels.
No Effective Leaders: The rebels lacked an effective leader. Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope, and Rani Lakshmibai were brave leaders, no doubt, but they could not offer effective leadership to the movement as a whole.
Limited Resources: The rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The English, on the other hand, received a steady supply of men, money, and arms in India.
No Participation of the Middle Class: The English educated middle class, the rich merchants, traders, and zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the revolt.

6.6. Results of the Revolt

The great uprising of 1857 was an important landmark in the history of modern India.
The revolt marked the end of the East India Company's rule in India. India now came under the direct rule of the British Crown.
This was announced by Lord Canning at a Durbar in Allahabad in a proclamation issued on 1 November 1858 in the name of the Queen. Thus, Indian administration was taken over by Queen Victoria, which, in effect, meant the British Parliament. The Governor General's office was replaced by that of the Viceroy.
The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished. The right to adopt sons as legal heirs was accepted.
The Revolt of 1857 paved the way for the future struggle for freedom in India.