Establishment of the North Indian Empire

Establishment of the North Indian Empire: A Dynamic Phase UPSC Prelims and Mains

Early 16th century North India saw great change. The once-powerful Delhi Sultanate was waning, hence generating a power vacuum. This opened the way for fresh rivals, mostly the Mughals under Babur and the Afghans trying to regain their power.

Prelims Advice:

Babur overcomes Ibrahim Lodi in 1526 to create the Mughal Empire. This is the start of a new period.
Early reign of Humayun: Characterized by instability and opposition from Afghan leaders.

Babur's creation of the Mughal Empire was not a quick hit narrative. His son, Humayun, inherited an embryonic empire racked with internal discord and outside threats, especially from the rising Afghans. This unstable environment set the stage for one of the most fascinating breaks in Mughal power: Sher Shah Suri's rise.

Sher Shah Suri's meteoric ascent to dominance in the Sur dynasty (UPSC Prelims and Mains)

Preliminary Tips:

Farid Khan was initially known.
Earned for single-handedly murdering a tiger is the name "Sher Khan."

Key Confrontations:

Sher Shah defeats Humayun in the Battle of Chausa (1539).
Sher Shah won conclusively at the Battle of Kannauj/Bilgram in 1540, forcing Humayun into exile and starting the Sur Dynasty.
Sher Shah Suri, founder of the Sur Dynasty.
Capital: Delhi.
Reign: 1540–1545 (a brief but significant time).

From the mains' point of view, Sher Shah Suri's ascendancy to command is proof of excellent managerial ability and strategic insight. Farid Khan, who was born in Sasaram (Bihar), started his career working for the Lohani Afghans before turning under Babur. His sharp mind showed itself rather quickly. He was given the moniker Sher Khan following a famous encounter where he slew a tiger.

Using the flaws in Humayun's administration, he skillfully turned the internal rivalries among the Mughal aristocracy to his advantage. His successes at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540) were masterful demonstrations in strategic superiority and seizing on the ideal opportunity rather than only battlefield wins. These losses drove Humayun to Persia, causing a 15-year gap in Mughal reign and the founding of the Sur Dynasty. Ironically, Sher Shah's short, five-year rule (1540–1545) was one of great administrative change that set the stage for a more solid and affluent empire—for his future adversaries.

Between Hemu and Akbar, second fight of Panipat 1556 is UPSC Prelims and Mains topic.

Prelims Advice: November 5, 1556.

Combatants: Mughal troops under Akbar and Bairam Khan versus Hemu, Hindu king, general, and Wazir of Adil Shah Suri.
Importance: Decisive Mughal victory restored their authority over North India following the Sur interim.
Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, Samrat Hem's title.

From the siege of Kalinjar, Sher Shah Suri passed in 1545, which ushered in a turbulent period within the Sur Dynasty. His descendants proved less skilled, hence setting Humayun back in action. Humayun brilliantly retook Delhi in 1555, yet his early demise left the young Akbar (only 13 years old) with a great challenge.

From modest beginnings, Hemu became the Chief Minister and military head of Adil Shah Suri, one of Sher Shah's successors. Having won 22 victories against Mughal forces and Afghan rebels, Hemu was a brilliant general. He took Agra and Delhi and declared himself 'Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya,' a rare example of a Hindu monarch bearing the historic title of Vikramaditya. This posed a serious risk to the nascent Mughal Empire.

On the same historical plain where Babur had laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire, the Second Battle of Panipat (November 5, 1556) was fought. Bairam Khan, Akbar's protector, successfully commanded the Mughal troops in his presence. Backed by war elephants, Hemu's army initially held the upper hand. But a fatal arrow hit Hemu in the eye and knocked him unconscious. His troops were thrown into terror by this sudden lack of leadership, which resulted in their flight. Hemu was caught and afterwards put to death.

Significance of the fight:

Re-establishment of Mughal Authority: It clearly ended the Afghan fight against Mughal power in North India, therefore clearing the road for Akbar's long and prosperous reign.
Akbar's consolidation: The triumph let Akbar and Bairam Khan strengthen Mughal control, therefore establishing the groundwork for a large empire.
It practically signaled the end of any serious Afghan contender for Delhi's throne for a rather long time.
Emphasizing the strategic brilliance of Bairam Khan, who led Akbar as a youth during this critical period.

Administrative Reforms under Sher Shah Suri: A Blueprint for Governance

Though his rule was short, Sher Shah Suri is correctly lauded as one of India's best administrators. His reforms were core changes that demonstrated great foresight and a sincere care for the well-being of his people rather than only stop-gap measures.

Prelims Pointers:

Land Revenue: Rai system, Patta (title deed), Qabuliyat (deed of agreement), Jaribana (survey charge), and Muhasilana (collection charge).
Currencies: Gold coin (Mohar), standardized silver coin (Rupiya), copper coin (Dam).
Roads: Sadak-e-Azam, Sarail
Noted for objective justice.
Military: Chehra, a descriptive roll of soldiers, and Dagh, branding of horses.

Mains Perspective: His government was founded on centralization, efficiency, and well-being—a practical and contemporary approach.

1. Probably Sher Shah's most important change was the administration of land revenue.

He commissioned a complete survey and measurement of usable land employing the "Sikandari Gaj" (39 inches). Lands were classified as excellent, medium, and poor.
State's share: set at one-third of the average output, payable in cash or kind. It was one-fourth in Multan.

- Patta (a written document outlining the area sown, crop kind, and income split) and Qabuliyat (a deed of agreement or acceptance by the peasant) were introduced to guarantee transparency and protect peasant rights. This mechanism removed middlemen and created a direct link between the state and the farmer.

Imposed a survey fee (Jaribana) and a collection fee (Muhasilana) on growers, but guaranteed fairness.
Peasant Welfare: He ordered officials to be lenient during evaluation but unrelenting when collecting. He also guaranteed recompense for agricultural losses resulting from army operations or natural disasters. This progressive approach set the groundwork for the Rai system Akbar would later adopt.

2. Sher Shah introduced previously unheard-of standardization to the erratic currency system.

Tri-metallic System: He presented a common tri-metallic coin:
Gold coin: Mohar (169 grains)
Silver coin: This 'Rupiya' (178 grains) served as a forerunner to the contemporary Indian Rupee, a moniker that has existed for ages.
Copper coin: 320 grains of Dam
Uniformity: The consistent purity and weight of the coins much helped trade and commerce, so fostering economic activity throughout his realm. For its day, this consistency was quite a feat.

3. Sher Shah was a visionary for roads and communication infrastructure.

Construction and maintenance of the Grand Trunk Road, also known as the Sadak-e-Azam, connected Sonargaon (Bengal) to Peshawar (North-West Frontier Province) and extended to Jodhpur and Chittor and Lahore to Multan. This artery road

- He built at regular intervals of every two kos (/) (about 8 kilometers) along the roads, sarais (/) (rest houses). These sarais were hotels for travelers, postal offices (dak chowkis), and regional market hubs, therefore promoting intelligence gathering and commerce.

Postal Network: The sarais also supported a fast communications network throughout the large kingdom.

4. Law Enforcement and Justice:

Sher Shah punished even his own family if they disobeyed the law, so demonstrating his tough and unbiased justice.
Local Responsibility: He made local headmen (Muqaddams) accountable for crimes carried out within their authority, therefore guaranteeing local responsibility for law and order.

5. Military government;

Standing Army: Paid directly by the government, he kept a sizable and well disciplined standing army, hence decreasing reliance on feudal charges.
Chehra and Dagh: He restored Alauddin Khalji's customs of Chehra (descriptive rolls of soldiers to stop phoney musters) and Dagh (branding of horses to avoid replacement). This guaranteed army loyalty and effectiveness.

Legacy of the Sur Dynasty on Mughal Administration (UPSC Prelims and Mains)

Prelims Advice:

Akbar's land revenue system (Todar Mal's Bandobast), currency system—direct impact.
Administrative division into Sarkars and Parganas.
Grand Trunk Road; Infrastructure.
Centered model of management.

From the main viewpoint, though brief, the Sur Dynasty had a lasting influence on Indian administration especially on the Mughal Empire under Akbar. Sher Shah Suri's administrative reforms were so thorough and strategically designed that Akbar's own governance became the template, so demonstrating the saying that even adversaries can learn from one another's accomplishments.

1. Certainly most important legacy is in the field of land income. Under Sher Shah, Akbar's famous finance minister, Raja Todar Mal had acquired priceless experience. Akbar's Zabt system, often known as Todar Mal's Bandobast, directly built on Sher Shah's Rai system. Along with the Patta and Qabuliyat method, the Mughals directly inherited and developed the systematic survey, measurement, and fixation of the state's portion to provide for a steady and fair income for the empire.

2. Mughals embraced Sher Shah's tri-metallic coinage system, especially the Rupiya, and continued it for centuries, thereby affecting money throughout the subcontinent and even farther. During the Mughal era, this solid currency was quite important in promoting trade and economic expansion.

3. Sher Shah created a very effective administrative structure for the kingdom by dividing it into *Sarkars* (districts) and Parganas (sub-districts), with designated officers for revenue collecting and law and order. Under Akbar, the Mughals mostly preserved this pattern but modified it to meet their needs.

4. Though Sher Shah's dream was grand, the Grand Trunk Road continued to be a major artery for trade, communication, and military transit all through the Mughal age and even under the British. Furthermore promoting communication and enabling governance, the sarais remained useful.

5. With the monarch at its height, Sher Shah created a very authoritarian government stressing direct control and accountability. Under Akbar especially, the Mughals mostly embraced and progressively reinforced this model of great, centralized power, therefore creating an efficient empire system.

Sher Shah Suri's reign was essentially a crucial interlude that not only contested Mughal authority but also unintentionally gave them a model for efficient government. With pragmatism and vision, Akbar saw the value of Sher Shah's changes and strategically incorporated them into his own governmental system, so ushering the golden age of the Mughal Empire. This shows how frequently historical events are linked, with one age's developments laying the groundwork for the next.

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FAQ's :-

What is meant by the "Establishment of the North Indian Empire" in medieval Indian history?

This usually refers to the period following the decline of the Delhi Sultanate, particularly the early 16th century, which saw the rise of two major contenders for supremacy: the Mughals (led by Babur) and the Afghans (primarily the Sur Dynasty under Sher Shah). It signifies the consolidation of a powerful, centralized imperial authority over a large part of North India, shifting from the fragmented political landscape that preceded it.

Who were the key players in the struggle for supremacy in North India during the early 16th century?

The primary contenders were the invading Mughals, led by Babur and later Humayun and Akbar, and the Afghan chieftains, most notably Sher Shah Suri, who carved out his own powerful empire. Other regional powers, like the Rajputs, also played a significant but often fluctuating role.

What was the significance of the First Battle of Panipat (1526)?

This battle was a game-changer! Babur's decisive victory over Ibrahim Lodi marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India. It fundamentally altered the political landscape of North India and set the stage for centuries of Mughal rule.

Who was Sher Shah Suri, and why is he considered a significant figure in Indian history?

Sher Shah Suri, born Farid Khan, was the founder of the Sur Dynasty. He is considered significant not just for briefly displacing the Mughals (Humayun) and establishing an Afghan empire, but more importantly, for his exceptional administrative reforms. He laid the groundwork for many systems that were later adopted and refined by the Mughals, particularly under Akbar.

How did Sher Shah Suri manage to defeat the mighty Mughals and establish his own empire?

Sher Shah's success was a blend of military genius, shrewd diplomacy, and capitalizing on Humayun's weaknesses and indecisiveness. His victories at the Battles of Chausa (1539) and Kannauj/Bilgram (1540) were tactical masterpieces, demonstrating his superior leadership and military organization compared to Humayun at that time.

What were the major administrative reforms introduced by Sher Shah Suri?

Sher Shah was a true reformer! His key administrative innovations included:

Land Revenue System: Scientific land measurement, classification of land, fixation of state's share (one-third), and introduction of Patta and Qabuliyat for transparency.
Currency Reforms: Standardization of coinage with the introduction of the Rupiya (silver), Mohar (gold), and Dam (copper).
Infrastructure: Construction and repair of the Grand Trunk Road (Sadak-e-Azam) and establishment of sarais (rest houses) at regular intervals for travelers and trade.
Justice and Law Enforcement: Strict and impartial justice system, holding local officials responsible for crimes.
Military Reforms: Revival of branding of horses (Dagh) and descriptive rolls of soldiers (Chehra) for military efficiency.

What was the "Rupiya" introduced by Sher Shah Suri, and why is it important?

The "Rupiya" was a standardized silver coin introduced by Sher Shah, weighing 178 grains. Its importance lies in its uniformity and purity, which greatly facilitated trade and commerce. It served as the precursor to the modern Indian Rupee, a name that has persisted for centuries, showcasing its enduring legacy.

Did Sher Shah Suri's administrative system influence later empires?

Absolutely! His administrative model was so effective that it was largely adopted and refined by the Mughal emperor Akbar. Raja Todar Mal, Akbar's revenue minister, had worked under Sher Shah and implemented many of his land revenue principles, such as the Zabt system. His currency reforms and road networks also significantly impacted subsequent Mughal administration.

What led to the Second Battle of Panipat (1556)?

After Sher Shah's death, the Sur Dynasty weakened. Humayun returned and recaptured Delhi in 1555, but died shortly after. This left his young son, Akbar, to face a powerful challenge from Hemu, an able Hindu general and wazir of Adil Shah Suri, who had captured Agra and Delhi and declared himself 'Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya'. The battle was essentially a struggle for the re-establishment of Mughal supremacy.

Who was Hemu (Hem Chandra Vikramaditya), and what was his role in the Second Battle of Panipat?

Hemu was an extraordinary figure who rose from humble beginnings to become a powerful general and the de facto ruler of a significant part of North India before the Second Battle of Panipat. He was a formidable opponent for the Mughals, having won numerous battles. He led the Afghan forces against Akbar's army at Panipat and was on the verge of victory before a chance arrow struck his eye, turning the tide of the battle.

What was the outcome and significance of the Second Battle of Panipat?

The battle resulted in a decisive victory for the Mughals, primarily due to the leadership of Bairam Khan (Akbar's regent) and the unfortunate injury to Hemu. Its significance lies in:

Re-establishment of Mughal Rule: It firmly re-established Mughal authority over North India after the brief Sur interregnum.

Consolidation of Akbar's Reign: It removed the major threat to the young Akbar's throne, allowing him to consolidate and expand the Mughal Empire for the next several decades.

End of Afghan Challenge: It largely signaled the end of any serious Afghan challenge to Mughal rule in India for a considerable period.

Establishment of the North Indian Empire