Indus Valley Civilization

1. Introduction to Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Culture, was one of the early centers where man settled down and progressed to lead a highly civilized life. It is one of the three early civilizations of the Near East and South Asia (along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia), and the most widespread of the three.

2. Phases of Indus Valley Civilization (Value-added)

Early Harappan Phase (c. 3300-2600 BCE): Characterized by the growth of village farming communities, development of town planning, and the beginnings of a distinct Harappan culture. Key sites include Mehrgarh, Kot Diji.
Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600-1900 BCE): The period of flourishing urban centers, standardized crafts, and widespread trade. Most of the iconic Harappan sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, and Dholavira belong to this phase.
Late Harappan Phase (c. 1900-1300 BCE): Marks the decline of the civilization, with a decrease in urban features, loss of standardization, and regional diversification of cultures.

3. Extent of the Harappan Culture

The Indus Valley Civilization covered a vast geographical area:

Covered parts of Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and western Uttar Pradesh.
Extended from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estuary in the south and from the Makran coast of Baluchistan in the west to Meerut in the northeast.
Covered an area of about 1,299,600 square kilometers, larger than ancient Egyptian or Mesopotamian cultures, making it the largest of the ancient civilizations of its time.

4. Geographical Factors

Moderate climatic conditions and fertile plains along the Indus contributed to prosperity.
Floods deposited rich alluvial soil on these plains annually, providing fertile ground for agriculture.

5. Town Planning

Indus cities were remarkable for their sophisticated and uniform town planning:

Indus cities were well-planned with a citadel (higher mound) and a lower city (residential area). The citadel likely housed public buildings, granaries, and important administrative or religious structures.
Roads were wide and straight, often running in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles, indicating careful planning.
A highly developed and efficient drainage system was a hallmark of Harappan cities. Houses had drains connected to street drains, which were often covered.
Houses varied in size and were made of burnt bricks, with wells and bathrooms in almost every house. The standardized size of bricks across various sites suggests a centralized authority or strong cultural exchange.
Important structures include the Great Bath (a large public bath for ritual purification) and the pillared hall at Mohenjo-Daro, and the dockyard at Lothal (Gujarat) and granary at Harappa.

6. Social Life

Social classes: Different types of houses indicate different social classes, suggesting a stratified society. Merchants formed the upper class, while artisans and farmers were common people. There is no clear evidence of a warrior class or priest-king, though some scholars suggest a priestly elite.
Dress: Cotton and woolen fabrics were used. Women wore skirts and upper garments; men wore loincloths and loose garments, suggesting knowledge of spinning and weaving.
Ornaments: Made of gold, silver, ivory, and precious stones. Both men and women wore ornaments, indicating a rich culture and an aesthetic sense.
Recreation: Dance, music, indoor games like dice, and terracotta toys were popular. This suggests a varied and vibrant social life.

7. Economic Conditions

Agriculture: Main occupation with crops like wheat, barley, peas, and rice. Fields were ploughed using wooden ploughshares. Evidence of irrigation canals has also been found at some sites.
Domestication of animals: Included goats, buffaloes, oxen, elephants, dogs, and camels. The horse was unfamiliar, suggesting it was not domesticated by the Harappans.
Crafts: Skilled in bronze work (e.g., the "Dancing Girl" statue from Mohenjo-Daro), brick-making, pottery (plain and painted), spinning, and weaving. They also practiced bead-making (Carnelian beads were famous).
Trade: Flourishing internal trade within the region and external trade with the Indus river acting as a major waterway. Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia (Sumeria and Akkad), Oman, and Central Asia through seals, weights, and specific goods. Standardized weights and measures were used.

8. Religious Practices

No temples found, suggesting the absence of elaborate public religious structures or a priestly class as seen in other contemporary civilizations.
Findings suggest worship of a Mother Goddess (fertility cult) and a male deity resembling Shiva (Pashupati Mahadeva) depicted on seals.
Evidence of tree worship (Pipal tree), animal worship (one-horned unicorn, humped bull), and fire altars (at Kalibangan and Lothal).
Belief in amulets and talismans, suggesting practices to ward off evil.

9. Art and Sculpture (Value-added)

Seals: Thousands of seals, mostly square or rectangular, made of steatite, depict animals (unicorn, humped bull, tiger, elephant) and human figures, along with an undeciphered script. They might have been used for trade or identification.
Figurines: Terracotta figurines of women (Mother Goddess), animals, and toys are common.
Bronze Castings: The "Dancing Girl" from Mohenjo-Daro (bronze statue of a female dancer) and a bronze bull are notable examples of advanced lost-wax casting technique.
Stone Sculptures: Two significant stone statues from Harappa - a red sandstone torso of a male and a grey stone dancer, show remarkable anatomical detail.

10. Harappan Script (Value-added)

The Harappan script is pictographic, consisting of around 400-600 signs.
It has not yet been deciphered, making the understanding of their language, literature, and governance challenging.
The script was primarily written from right to left, and sometimes in boustrophedon style (alternating directions).

11. Decline

The Harappan Culture lasted about a thousand years and largely collapsed by about 1800 BC. The exact causes of its decline are still debated, and several theories have been proposed:

Climatic changes: Changes in monsoon patterns leading to increasing aridity.
Conflicts with Aryans: Earlier theories suggested an "Aryan invasion" as a cause of decline, but this theory is now largely discredited due to lack of conclusive archaeological evidence.
Natural calamities: Recurrent floods (especially for Mohenjo-Daro, which shows evidence of multiple flood layers), earthquakes, or changes in the course of the Indus River (e.g., Ghaggar-Hakra river drying up).
Environmental degradation: Over-exploitation of resources like forests for fuel and timber leading to ecological imbalance.
Decline in trade: A potential decline in trade with Mesopotamia could have weakened the economic base.

It is likely that a combination of these factors, rather than a single cause, contributed to the gradual decline and eventual collapse of the great Harappan Civilization, leading to the fragmentation into smaller, regional Late Harappan cultures.