Jainism and Budhism in India

1. Jainism: An Overview

Jainism is one of the oldest religious traditions of the world. A great generation of tirthankaras, acaryas, saints, and scholars belong to this tradition.

• Jainism is one of the religious origins which can be traced back to the twenty-four teachers (tirthankaras - ones who establish a path or ford), through whom their faith is believed to have been handed down.
• The term 'Jaina' is derived from the term 'Jina', and the term 'Jina' is the common name for the supreme souls who are totally free from all feelings of attachment, aversion, etc. The etymological meaning of the word 'Jina' is 'conqueror'.
• It is the common name given to the twenty-four teachers (tirthankaras), because they have conquered all passions (raga and dvesa) and have attained liberation. Jainism in its essence is the religion of heroic souls who are jinas or conquerors of their self.
• The devotees of 'Jina' are called 'Jaina', and the religion propounded by jina is called the 'Jaina Religion'.

1.1. Key Figures in Jainism

• The first of these teachers was Rsabhadeva and the last was Vardhamana, also known as Mahavira (the Great Hero).
• Rsabhadeva (also known as Adinatha) is mentioned in the Rig Veda.
• The immediate predecessor of Mahavira was the twenty-third tirthankara, Parshvanatha. He preached the doctrine of love and ahimsa. He enjoined four vows, which are: (i) Not to destroy life (ahimsa), (ii) Not to lie (satya), (iii) Not to steal (asteya), and (iv) Not to own property (aparigraha).
• Mahavira is the successor of Parshvanatha, who lived in the ninth century B.C. The contribution of Jainism to Indian culture, spirituality, and philosophy is really immense. It is a religion of praxis than of faith. Jainism is a sramanic religion.

1.2. Core Principles of Jainism

• The word 'Sramana' means an ascetic or a monk. Thus asceticism and mysticism, meditation and contemplation, silence and solitude, practice of virtues like non-violence, renunciation, celibacy, self-control, etc. are distinguishing characteristics of this tradition.
• Jainism was also instrumental for a radical change in the social life of Indians. Jainism has the universal message of non-violence.
• The five great vows (Mahavratas) for ascetics (and lesser vows for laypersons):
  1. Ahimsa (Non-violence): Not to injure any living being.
  2. Satya (Truthfulness): To speak only truth.
  3. Asteya (Non-stealing): Not to take anything not given.
  4. Aparigraha (Non-possession): Renouncing all possessions.
  5. Brahmacharya (Chastity/Celibacy): Added by Mahavira for ascetics.
• Anekantavada: The doctrine of manifold aspects, which states that reality can be perceived from different points of view, and no single view is complete. This promotes tolerance.
• Syadvada: The theory of 'may be' or conditional predication, which helps express Anekantavada by qualifying statements about reality.
• Karma: Belief in the law of Karma and transmigration of soul, where liberation (moksha) is achieved by purifying the soul from karmic matter.

1.3. Origin and Development of Jainism

• The advent of Jainism in the sixth century BC was expected, as many people were beginning to oppose the hierarchical organization and formalized ritualism of the Vedic religion.
• The failure of the Vedic religion to meet popular needs, the meaningless forms of sacrifices which did not provide release from samsara, and the merciless killing of animals in the sacrificial context forced the jinas to provide the people with a new orientation and new interpretation.
• Their teachings laid primary emphasis on personal training, and taught that salvation is attainable to anyone willing to learn it.
• They stressed on personal effort and practice, not theoretical speculation, and proof of their validity was found in personal experience, not textual authority or logical argument.
• Jains hold the view that the Jaina religion is eternal and has been revealed again and again in the succeeding periods of the world by innumerable Tirthankaras.
• It is believed that all the Tirthankaras reached moksha at the time of their death, as a result of their personal effort; they are regarded as 'Gods' and are worshipped by the Jains.
• Jains believe that it is on the authority of the teachings of the omniscient liberated saints (Jinas or Tirthankaras) that we can have real knowledge about certain spiritual matters. The teachings and lives of the saints show the possibility and path to attain liberation.

1.4. Sects of Jainism (Value-added)

Due to a severe famine in the 3rd century BC, a group of Jains led by Bhadrabahu migrated to South India, while others led by Sthulabhadra remained in Magadha. This eventually led to a schism:

• Digambara ("Sky-clad"): Monks practice nudity, believing it signifies complete renunciation. They believe women cannot achieve liberation without being reborn as men.
• Svetambara ("White-clad"): Monks wear white clothes. They believe women can achieve liberation and the 19th Tirthankara, Mallinath, was a woman.

1.5. Jain Councils (Value-added)

• First Jain Council (c. 300 BCE): Held at Pataliputra, presided over by Sthulabhadra. Resulted in the compilation of the 12 Angas and the division into Digambara and Svetambara sects.
• Second Jain Council (c. 512 CE): Held at Vallabhi (Gujarat), presided over by Devardhi Kshamashramana. Resulted in the final compilation and editing of the Svetambara canon.

1.6. Spread of Jainism (Value-added)

• Initially spread in Magadha and then into Kalinga (Odisha), Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
• Patronage from kings like Chandragupta Maurya (who became a Jain monk), Kharavela of Kalinga, and the Ganga, Kadamba, and Chalukya dynasties in the South.

1.7. Jain Art & Architecture (Value-added)

• Statues: Gomateshwara (Bahubali) statue at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).
• Temples: Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan), Ranakpur Temple (Rajasthan), Palitana Temples (Gujarat).
• Cave Architecture: Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves (Odisha).

2. Buddhism: An Overview

Buddhism originated in ancient India as a Sramana tradition, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. It provides a path to liberation from suffering and rebirth (nirvana).

2.1. Siddhartha Gautama (The Buddha) (Value-added)

• Born in Lumbini (Nepal) around 563 BCE into the Shakya clan.
• Gave up his princely life to seek the truth of suffering (Mahabhinishkraman - Great Renunciation).
• Attained enlightenment (Nirvana) under a Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya (Bihar).
• Gave his first sermon at Sarnath (Varanasi), known as Dharma Chakra Pravartana (Turning the Wheel of Law).
• Passed away at Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh).

2.2. Core Principles of Buddhism (Value-added)

• Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya):
  1. Life is suffering (Dukkha).
  2. The cause of suffering is craving/desire (Dukkha Samudaya).
  3. Suffering can be ended (Dukkha Nirodha).
  4. The way to end suffering is the Eightfold Path (Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Pratipada).
• Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga): The middle path to attain Nirvana.
  • Right Understanding
  • Right Thought
  • Right Speech
  • Right Action
  • Right Livelihood
  • Right Effort
  • Right Mindfulness
  • Right Concentration
• Nirvana: The ultimate goal, cessation of suffering, a state of perfect peace and liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
• Anicca (Impermanence): Everything is constantly changing.
• Anatta (Non-self): There is no permanent, unchanging self or soul.
• Dependent Origination (Paticca Samuppada): Everything arises in dependence upon other causes and conditions.

2.3. Buddhist Councils (Value-added)

• First Council (c. 483 BCE): Held at Rajgir, immediately after Buddha's Mahaparinirvana. Aimed to preserve the Buddha's teachings (Vinaya Pitaka - monastic rules and Sutta Pitaka - Buddha's discourses). Presided by Mahakasyapa.
• Second Council (c. 383 BCE): Held at Vaishali. Addressed disputes over monastic practices, leading to an initial schism into Sthaviravada (orthodox) and Mahasanghika (liberal) schools.
• Third Council (c. 250 BCE): Held at Pataliputra under Emperor Ashoka's patronage. Aimed to purify the Sangha and compile the Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical discourses). Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa.
• Fourth Council (c. 72 CE): Held in Kashmir/Jalandhar under King Kanishka's patronage. Led to the clear division between Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism.

2.4. Schools of Buddhism (Value-added)

• Hinayana (Theravada): The "Lesser Vehicle." Adherents believe in individual liberation (Arhatship) and strictly follow the original teachings of Buddha. Prominent in Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia.
• Mahayana: The "Greater Vehicle." Believes in the concept of Bodhisattvas (enlightened beings who delay their own nirvana to help others). Prominent in East Asia (China, Japan, Korea).
• Vajrayana: The "Diamond Vehicle." Emphasizes tantric practices and rituals to achieve enlightenment quickly. Prominent in Tibet, Bhutan.
• Zen Buddhism: A Mahayana school emphasizing meditation and intuition. Popular in Japan.

2.5. Spread and Decline of Buddhism in India (Value-added)

• Spread:
  • Ashoka's Patronage: Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) was a pivotal figure. He adopted Buddhism, propagated it through rock and pillar edicts, sent missionaries (like his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka), and built stupas.
  • Other patrons included Kanishka, Harsha, Pala rulers.
  • Buddhist Sangha played a crucial role in disseminating the teachings.
• Decline:
  • Revival of Brahmanism/Hinduism: Emergence of Bhagavatism and other Bhakti movements.
  • Internal Decadence: Growing corruption in the Sangha, focus on rituals and image worship led to loss of original simplicity.
  • Turkish Invasions: Destruction of monasteries (viharas) and killing of monks by invaders like Bakhtiyar Khalji, which severely crippled institutional Buddhism.
  • Loss of Royal Patronage: Decline in state support after the Gupta period.
  • Absorption into Hinduism: Buddha came to be regarded as an incarnation of Vishnu, weakening its separate identity.

3. Comparison of Jainism and Buddhism (Value-added)

3.1. Similarities

• Both originated in the 6th century BCE as reformist movements against Vedic ritualism and dominance of Brahmanas.
• Both opposed the caste system and emphasized equality.
• Both believed in the law of Karma and transmigration of soul.
• Both emphasized asceticism, meditation, and self-control.
• Both had monastic orders (Sangha).
• Both used Prakrit and Pali languages (common people's languages) for their teachings, unlike Sanskrit.

3.2. Differences

• Extreme Asceticism: Jainism advocates extreme asceticism (e.g., nudity, fasts unto death - Sallekhana/Santhara). Buddhism advocates the 'Middle Path', avoiding extremes of indulgence and severe austerity.
• Ahimsa: Jainism takes Ahimsa to an extreme, prohibiting harm even to insects. Buddhism, while advocating non-violence, is less rigid.
• Soul (Atman): Jainism believes in the existence of a soul in every living and non-living thing. Buddhism denies the existence of an eternal soul (Anatta doctrine).
• God: Both are atheistic in the sense that they do not believe in a creator God, but Jainism acknowledges the existence of deities who are subordinate to Jinas.
• Spread: Buddhism spread rapidly outside India and became a world religion. Jainism largely remained confined to India.
• Language: Early Jain texts primarily used Prakrit. Early Buddhist texts primarily used Pali.

4. Impact on Indian Society (Value-added)

• Philosophy & Ethics: Introduced rationalistic thinking, emphasized ethical conduct, and broadened philosophical discourse beyond Vedic traditions.
• Social Reform: Challenged the caste system and Brahmanical supremacy, promoting a more egalitarian society. Opened their orders to all, regardless of caste or gender.
• Language & Literature: Promoted the use of Prakrit and Pali, leading to the development of regional languages and literature. Many important Buddhist and Jain texts were written in these languages.
• Art & Architecture: Inspired a rich tradition of stupas, viharas, chaityas, rock-cut caves, and magnificent sculptures (e.g., Sanchi Stupa, Ajanta-Ellora caves, Jain temples like Dilwara).
• Education: Establishment of renowned monastic universities like Nalanda, Vikramshila, and Vallabhi as centers of learning.
• Concept of Ahimsa: Deeply influenced Indian thought, contributing to the development of non-violent movements throughout history (e.g., Mahatma Gandhi).