Nationalist Movement in India

1. Introduction to Nationalist Movement (1905-1918)

• Gradually, over the years, the trend of militant nationalism (also known as Extremism) had been growing in the country. It found expression in the movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.
• The Indian national movement, even in its early days, had increasingly made a large number of people conscious of the evils of foreign domination and of the need for fostering patriotism.
• It had imparted the necessary political training to the educated Indians. It had, in fact, changed the temper of the people and created a new life in the country.
• At the same time, the failure of the British government to accept any of the important demands of the nationalists produced disillusionment among the politically conscious people with the principles and methods of the dominant moderate leadership.
• Instead of conciliating the moderate nationalists, the British rulers denigrated and looked down upon them. Consequently, there was a strong demand for more vigorous political action and methods than those of meetings, petitions, memorials and speeches in the legislative councils.

2. Recognition of the True Nature of British Rule

• The politics of the moderates were founded on the belief that British rule could be reformed from within. But the spread of knowledge regarding political and economic questions gradually undermined this belief. The political agitation of the moderates was itself responsible for this to a large extent.
• The nationalist writers and agitators blamed the British rule for the poverty of the people.
• Politically conscious Indians were convinced that the purpose of the British rule was to exploit India economically, that is, to enrich England at the cost of India.
• They realised that India could make little progress in the economic field unless British imperialism was replaced by a government controlled and run by the Indian people.
• In particular, the nationalists came to see that Indian industries could not flourish except under an Indian government, which could protect and promote them.
• The evil economic consequences of foreign rule were symbolized in the eyes of the people by the disastrous famines which ravaged India from 1896 to 1900 and took a toll of over 90 lakhs of lives.
• The political events of the years 1892–1905 also disappointed the nationalists and made them think of more radical politics. On the other hand, even the existing political rights of the people were attacked.
• In 1898, a law was passed making it an offence to excite "feelings of disaffection" towards the foreign government.
• In 1899, the number of Indian members in the Calcutta Corporation was reduced. In 1904, the Indian Official Secrets Act was passed restricting the freedom of the press.
• The Natu brothers were deported in 1897 without being tried, even the charges against them were not made public.
• In the same year, Lokamanya Tilak and other newspaper editors were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for arousing the people against the foreign government.
• Thus, the people found that, instead of giving them wider political rights, the rulers were taking away even their few existing ones.
• The anti-Congress attitude of Lord Curzon convinced the people more and more that it was useless to expect any political and economic advancement as long as Britain ruled India.
• Even the moderate leader Gokhale complained that "the bureaucracy was growing frankly selfish and openly hostile to national aspirations."
• Even socially and culturally, the British rule was no longer progressive. Primary and technical education was not making any progress. At the same time, the officials were becoming suspicious of higher education and were even trying to discourage its spread in the country.
• The Indian Universities Act of 1904 was seen by the nationalists as an attempt to bring Indian universities under tighter official control and to check the growth of higher education.
• Thus an increasing number of Indians were getting convinced that self-government was essential for the sake of the economic, political and cultural progress of the country and that political enslavement meant stunting the growth of the Indian people.

3. Rise of Extremism (Value Added)

• Causes:
  • Failure of Moderates to achieve concrete results and their "mendicant" policy.
  • Growing self-confidence and pride in Indian culture and history (influenced by reform movements).
  • International influences: Rise of Japan, defeat of Russia, nationalist movements in Ireland, Turkey, Egypt, Abyssinia, and China, which inspired Indians.
  • Lord Curzon's policies (1899-1905): University Act (1904), Calcutta Corporation Act (1899), Official Secrets Act (1904), and especially the Partition of Bengal (1905), which enraged nationalists.
  • Famines and plague, coupled with British indifference and highhandedness.
• Key Extremist Leaders:
  • Lala Lajpat Rai ("Lion of Punjab") from Punjab.
  • Bal Gangadhar Tilak ("Lokamanya") from Maharashtra, who gave the slogan "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it!"
  • Bipin Chandra Pal from Bengal.
  • Aurobindo Ghosh from Bengal.
• Methods of Extremists:
  • Boycott of foreign goods and institutions.
  • Swadeshi (promotion of indigenous goods).
  • National education.
  • Passive resistance.
  • Mass participation, including students, women, and the youth.

4. Partition of Bengal (1905)

• Announced by Lord Curzon in July 1905 and came into effect on October 16, 1905.
• British Rationale: Administrative convenience, as Bengal Presidency was too large.
• Real Motive: To curb the rising tide of nationalism in Bengal, which was a hub of nationalist activities, by dividing Hindus and Muslims.
• Anti-Partition Movement:
  • Widespread protests, demonstrations, and public meetings.
  • Observance of 'Raksha Bandhan' and 'Amar Sonar Bangla' to symbolize unity.
• Swadeshi and Boycott Movement:
  • Emerged as a direct response to the partition.
  • Boycott of British goods and institutions.
  • Promotion of indigenous industries, schools, and cultural institutions.
  • Mass participation, involving women, students, and various sections of society.

5. Surat Split (1907)

• The growing differences between the Moderates and Extremists came to a head at the Surat session of the Indian National Congress in 1907.
• Reasons for Division:
  • Moderates wanted to restrict the Swadeshi and Boycott movement to Bengal, while Extremists wanted to extend it to the rest of India and incorporate Swaraj as the goal.
  • Disagreement over the election of the Congress President (Moderates favored Rash Behari Ghosh, Extremists favored Lala Lajpat Rai or Tilak).
• Consequences: The Congress split into two factions – the Moderates and the Extremists. This weakened the nationalist movement for a few years.

6. Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

• Introduced by Lord Morley (Secretary of State) and Lord Minto (Viceroy of India).
• Provisions:
  • Increased the size of legislative councils (both Central and Provincial).
  • Provided for the first time for the association of Indians with the executive councils of the Viceroy and Governors (Satyendra Sinha was the first Indian to join the Viceroy's Executive Council).
  • Introduced the system of separate electorates for Muslims, a divisive policy aimed at sowing discord between Hindus and Muslims.
• Limitations: Did not grant parliamentary form of government or responsible government. Largely undemocratic.

7. Revolutionary Terrorism (Early Phase)

• Emerged as a more radical response, especially among the youth, due to the perceived failure of both Moderate and Extremist methods.
• Believed in overthrowing British rule through violent means.
• Key Groups/Individuals:
  • Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar in Bengal.
  • Abhinav Bharat Society in Maharashtra (founded by V.D. Savarkar).
  • Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki (Muzaffarpur Conspiracy, 1908).
  • Madan Lal Dhingra (assassination of Curzon Wyllie in London, 1909).
  • V.D. Savarkar (Nasik Conspiracy Case).

8. Home Rule Movement (1916)

• A significant phase of the nationalist movement during World War I.
• Objectives: To achieve self-government (Home Rule) for India within the British Empire, similar to that enjoyed by other Dominions like Canada and Australia.
• Leaders:
  • Bal Gangadhar Tilak (established Indian Home Rule League at Belgaum in April 1916).
  • Annie Besant (established Home Rule League at Adyar, Madras in September 1916).
• Impact:
  • Created a strong organizational structure at the grassroots level.
  • Put pressure on the British government, leading to the Montagu Declaration of 1917, which promised gradual development of self-governing institutions.
  • Mobilized large sections of the population for the national cause.

9. Lucknow Pact (1916)

• A historic agreement between the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League.
• Reunion of Congress Factions: Moderates and Extremists reunited at this session, largely due to the efforts of Annie Besant and Tilak.
• Congress-League Agreement:
  • The Congress and the Muslim League agreed to present joint demands to the British government for constitutional reforms.
  • The Congress accepted the League's demand for separate electorates for Muslims, a controversial decision that would have long-term implications.
• The pact symbolized a temporary unity among different political factions in India against British rule.