The Strugle for Swaraj

1. Introduction to the Struggle for Swaraj

• The third and the last phase of the national movement began in 1919 when the era of popular mass movements was initiated.
• The Indian people waged perhaps the greatest mass struggle in world history and India's national revolution was victorious.
• A new political situation was maturing during the War years, 1914–18. Nationalism had gathered its forces and the nationalists were expecting major political gains after the war, and they were willing to fight back if their expectations were thwarted.
• The economic situation in the post-War years had taken a turn for the worse.
• There was first a rise in prices and then a depression in economic activity.
• Indian industries, which had prospered during the War because foreign imports of manufactured goods had ceased, now faced losses and closure.
• Moreover, foreign capital now began to be invested in India on a large scale.
• The Indian industrialists wanted protection of their industries through imposition of high customs duties and grant of government aid; they realised that a strong nationalist movement and an independent Indian government alone could secure these.
• The workers and artisans, facing unemployment and high prices, also turned actively towards the nationalist movement.
• Indian soldiers, who returned from their triumphs in Africa, Asia and Europe, imparted some of their confidence and their knowledge of the wide world to the rural areas.
• The peasantry, groaning under deepening poverty and high taxation, was waiting for a lead.
• The urban, educated Indians faced increasing unemployment. Thus all sections of Indian society were suffering economic hardships, compounded by droughts, high prices and epidemics.
• The international situation was also favourable to the resurgence of nationalism. The First World War gave a tremendous impetus to nationalism all over Asia and Africa.
• In order to win popular support for their War effort, the Allied nations—Britain, the United States, France, Italy and Japan—promised a new era of democracy and national self-determination to all the peoples of the world.
• But after their victory, they showed little willingness to end the colonial system. On the contrary, at the Paris Peace Conference, and in the different peace settlements, all the wartime promises were forgotten and, in fact, betrayed.
• The ex-colonies of the defeated powers, Germany and Turkey, in Africa, West Asia and East Asia were divided among the victorious powers.
• A militant nationalism, born out of a strong sense of disillusionment, began to arise everywhere in Asia and Africa.
• In India, while the British government made a half-hearted attempt at constitutional reform, it also made it clear that it had no intention of parting with political power or even sharing it with Indians.
• Another major consequence of the World War was the erosion of the White man's prestige. The European powers had from the beginning of their imperialism utilized the notion of racial and cultural superiority to maintain their supremacy.
• But during the War, both sides carried on intense propaganda against each other, exposing the opponent's brutal and uncivilized colonial record.
• Naturally, the people of the colonies tended to believe both sides and to lose their awe of the White man's superiority.

2. Rise of Mahatma Gandhi and Gandhian Era

• Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the most influential leader of the Indian National Movement. He returned to India in 1915 from South Africa, where he had developed his unique method of political agitation called Satyagraha (truth-force).
• Gandhian Philosophy: Based on the principles of Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) and Ahimsa (non-violence). He believed in mobilizing the masses through non-violent means.
• Early Movements (Experimental Phase):
  • Champaran Satyagraha (1917): First Civil Disobedience movement in India, against the oppressive indigo planters.
  • Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First Hunger Strike in India, for textile mill workers' wages.
  • Kheda Satyagraha (1918): First Non-Cooperation movement in India, for peasants facing revenue collection due to crop failure.

3. Major Movements for Swaraj

3.1. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

• Causes:
  • Rowlatt Act (1919): Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, which allowed for arrest and detention without trial, seen as a direct attack on civil liberties.
  • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): Brutal firing on a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, sparking widespread outrage.
  • Khilafat Issue: Indian Muslims were upset with the harsh treatment of the Ottoman Caliph (Khalifa) by the British after WWI. Gandhi supported the Khilafat movement to foster Hindu-Muslim unity.
  • Limited nature of Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919).
• Main Features and Programs:
  • Boycott of government schools, colleges, law courts, and legislative councils.
  • Renunciation of government titles and honours.
  • Boycott of foreign goods; promotion of Swadeshi and Khadi.
  • Hindu-Muslim unity.
  • Promotion of Charkha and spinning.
  • Non-payment of taxes.
• Spread: Widespread participation from all sections of society, including peasants, workers, students, and women.
• Withdrawal: The movement was abruptly called off by Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident (February 1922) where a police station was set on fire by a mob, leading to the death of 22 policemen. Gandhi felt the movement was turning violent.
• Impact: It was the first truly mass-based movement. It demonstrated the immense potential of non-violent resistance and forced the British to take notice of Indian aspirations.

3.2. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

• Causes:
  • Simon Commission (1927): All-white commission sent to India to review constitutional reforms, boycotted by Indians as it had no Indian members.
  • Lahore Congress Session (1929): Under Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress declared 'Purna Swaraj' (complete independence) as its ultimate goal.
  • Economic depression worldwide, affecting India's economy, leading to increased hardship for peasants and workers.
  • Failure of British to concede Indian demands.
• Dandi March and Salt Satyagraha (1930):
  • Gandhi launched the movement with the famous Dandi March (March 12, 1930), walking 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi to break the salt law.
  • The salt law was chosen because it affected every section of society and symbolized British exploitation.
• Spread and Participation:
  • The movement spread rapidly across India, with widespread breaking of salt laws, boycotts, and protests.
  • Massive participation from women, peasants, tribals, and industrial workers.
  • In various parts of the country, different forms of civil disobedience took place (e.g., no-tax campaigns, forest laws violation).
• Round Table Conferences (1930, 1931, 1932): Three conferences held in London to discuss constitutional reforms. Congress initially boycotted the first.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931): Signed between Gandhi and Viceroy Lord Irwin, leading to the suspension of the movement and Gandhi's participation in the Second Round Table Conference.
• Revival and Final Withdrawal: The movement was relaunched after Gandhi's return from the Second RTC but lost momentum and was officially withdrawn in 1934.
• Impact: Demonstrated the power of non-violent mass resistance. Increased the participation of women and marginalized sections. Showed the depth of nationalist sentiment.

3.3. Quit India Movement (1942)

• Causes:
  • Failure of Cripps Mission (1942): The mission failed to offer a concrete plan for Indian independence, leading to disillusionment.
  • Growing threat of Japanese invasion of India during World War II, causing fear and resentment.
  • British refusal to grant immediate independence, despite India's contribution to the war effort.
• Launch: Launched by Mahatma Gandhi on August 8, 1942, at the Bombay session of the AICC.
• Slogan: Gandhi gave the call for "Do or Die."
• Nature of the Movement:
  • Leaders were arrested immediately, leading to a leaderless, spontaneous, and widespread uprising.
  • Characterized by widespread sabotage of communication lines, government buildings, and railway tracks.
  • Formation of parallel governments in some areas (e.g., Satara, Ballia, Tamluk).
• Suppression: The British ruthlessly suppressed the movement, using force and mass arrests.
• Impact: It showed the sheer determination of the Indian people to achieve independence. It made it clear to the British that they could no longer hold India against its will.

4. Revolutionary Nationalism (Second Phase)

• After the decline of the Non-Cooperation Movement, a new wave of revolutionary activities emerged, particularly among disillusioned youth.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA): Formed in 1928, with prominent members like Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru. Advocated for a socialist republic.
• Notable Acts:
  • Bombing of the Central Legislative Assembly by Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt (1929) to protest public safety bill.
  • Assassination of Saunders (Lahore Conspiracy Case) by Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru (1928).
  • Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930): Led by Surya Sen in Bengal, aiming to seize arms from the British armoury.

5. Towards Independence

• Government of India Act 1935: Provided for an All-India Federation and provincial autonomy, but it was rejected by Congress for not granting full independence.
• Provincial Elections 1937: Congress won elections in most provinces, forming ministries. This demonstrated Congress's popularity.
• Lahore Resolution 1940: The Muslim League, under Jinnah, formally demanded a separate Muslim state (Pakistan).
• Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Aimed to negotiate the transfer of power and establish an interim government. Proposed a loose federation for India but failed to resolve the Hindu-Muslim question.
• Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Proposed the partition of India into India and Pakistan, and the transfer of power.
• Indian Independence Act 1947: Passed by the British Parliament, leading to the independence of India and Pakistan on August 15, 1947.