1. Introduction to Religious Movements
India is known to the world as a birthplace and meeting place of various religions, creeds, and faiths. Apart from the oldest ancient Hinduism, India gave birth to Jainism and Buddhism, two glorious religions that, with their rich principles, ideas, and philosophy, not only saved Indians from superstitious beliefs and spiritual dogmas but also enriched ancient Hinduism, which had been misinterpreted by Brahmanism. The two religions, with their principles of non-violence and noble philosophy, proved to be sister religions of Hinduism.
2. Early Medieval Period Context and Religious Dynamics
After them, Islam came in the beginning of the medieval age in India. Despite its principle of universal brotherhood, it could not associate itself with Hinduism. This was due to the fact that Islamic people were annoyed with the outer form of Hinduism, such as elaborate rites and rituals, polytheism, and idolatry. They did not try to delve deep into Hindu philosophy. Islamic religious men and Muslim rulers wanted to propagate the Islamic religion by adopting forceful methods, characterizing it as a militant religion. Muslims considered Hindus infidels, and Muslim rulers often declared Jihad on the eve of wars against Hindus. During the Sultanate period, Muslim rulers did not treat Hindus properly, and Hindu religious sentiments suffered when Muslim rulers plundered and destroyed Hindu temples.
Antagonism between the two different sects of people continued to grow day by day. Religious supremacy led Muslim rulers and people to exhibit mutual hatred and hostility towards their fellow Hindu citizens. At this critical hour of human ignorance and mutual hatred, a group of serious religious thinkers appeared. Through their Sufi and Bhakti movements, they awakened people about God and religion, doing everything to establish brotherhood, love, and friendship between Hindus and Muslims.
3. The Sufi Movement
The Sufi movement was a socio-religious movement of the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. The exponents of this movement were unorthodox Muslim saints who had a deep study of Vedantic philosophy and Buddhism of India. They had gone through various religious texts of India and had come in contact with great sages and seers of India. They could see Indian religion from very near and realized its inner values. Accordingly, they developed Islamic philosophy, which eventually gave birth to the Sufi Movement.
- The Sufi movement was the result of Hindu influence on Islam. This movement influenced both Muslims and Hindus and thus provided a common platform for the two.
- Though the Sufis were devout Muslims, they differed from orthodox Muslims. While the former believed in inner purity, the latter believed in external conduct.
- The union of the human soul with God through love and devotion was the essence of the teachings of the Sufi Saints. Their method of realizing God was the renunciation of the world and worldly pleasures. They lived a secluded life.
- They were called Sufis as they wore garments of wool (suf) as their badge of poverty. Thus, the name 'Sufi' is derived from the word Suf. They considered love to be the only means of reaching God.
- The Sufis did not attach importance to namaz, hajj, and celibacy. That is why they were misunderstood by orthodox Muslims.
- They regarded singing and dancing as methods of inducing a state of ecstasy that brought one nearer to the realization of God.
- There were some leading Sufi saints like Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar, and Nizam-ud-din Auliya.
- Sufi Orders (Silsilas): The Sufi movement was organized into various orders or silsilas, each with its own chain of spiritual teachers. The prominent silsilas in India were:
- Chishti Silsila: Founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer. Emphasized love, tolerance, and service to humanity. Popular among the masses due to their simple and inclusive approach.
- Suhrawardi Silsila: Active in Punjab and Sindh. Less ascetic than Chishtis, accepting royal patronage and wealth.
- Naqshbandi Silsila: More orthodox and puritanical, advocating strict adherence to Islamic law (Sharia).
- Qadiri Silsila: Popular in Punjab and Sindh, known for its emphasis on mystical devotion.
4. The Bhakti Movement (Value-added)
The Bhakti Movement was a significant socio-religious reform movement that originated in South India in the 7th century CE and spread to North India by the 12th century CE. It challenged the rigidities of the caste system and Brahmanical dominance, emphasizing devotion to a personal God as the path to salvation.
- Origin: Began with the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) in Tamil Nadu.
- Key Characteristics:
- Monotheism: Belief in one God.
- Devotion (Bhakti): Emphasized intense love and devotion as the means to attain salvation, rather than rituals or sacrifices.
- Egalitarianism: Rejected the caste system and promoted equality among devotees. Many Bhakti saints came from lower castes.
- Vernacular Languages: Teachings were spread in regional languages, making them accessible to the common people.
- Guru's Importance: Stressed the importance of a spiritual teacher (Guru).
- Simple Religion: Simplified religious practices, making them more personal and less ritualistic.
- Prominent Bhakti Saints:
- Shankara (8th Century CE): Advocated Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism), emphasizing the oneness of the individual soul (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman).
- Ramanuja (11th Century CE): Propounded Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), suggesting that the individual soul is a part of the Supreme Being. Advocated devotion to Vishnu.
- Madhavacharya (13th Century CE): Advocated Dvaita (dualism), believing in the distinctness of God, soul, and matter.
- Basavanna (12th Century CE): Leader of the Lingayat movement in Karnataka, challenged caste and rituals.
- Kabir (15th Century CE): A prominent Saguna and Nirguna saint who criticized both Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies, advocating a universal religion of love.
- Guru Nanak Dev (15th-16th Century CE): Founder of Sikhism, preached monotheism and equality.
- Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th-16th Century CE): Popularized Krishna Bhakti in Bengal through Kirtans (devotional singing).
- Mirabai (16th Century CE): A Rajput princess and fervent devotee of Lord Krishna, known for her devotional bhajans.
- Tulsidas (16th Century CE): Authored 'Ramcharitmanas', a popular rendition of the Ramayana in Awadhi.
- Surdas (16th Century CE): Blind poet and devotee of Krishna, known for 'Sursagar'.
5. Impact of Sufi and Bhakti Movements (Value-added)
- Social Harmony: Promoted peace and understanding between Hindus and Muslims, fostering a spirit of mutual respect and tolerance.
- Cultural Synthesis: Led to a rich synthesis of Indian and Islamic cultures in music, literature, and art.
- Regional Languages: Contributed significantly to the development and enrichment of regional languages, as saints preached in the local vernaculars.
- Challenge to Orthodoxy: Both movements openly criticized the rigid caste system, ritualism, and superstitions prevalent in their respective religions, thus playing a reformist role.
- Rise of Syncretic Cults: Led to the emergence of popular syncretic cults like the worship of Satya Pir.
6. Philosophical Schools of Hinduism (Darshanas) (Value-added)
Alongside the popular religious movements, ancient and medieval India also witnessed the development of various philosophical schools (Darshanas) which systematized Hindu thought.
- Astika (Orthodox) Schools (recognizing the authority of Vedas):
- Mimamsa: Focuses on the interpretation of Vedic rituals and duties (dharma).
- Vedanta: Explores the nature of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (self) based on the Upanishads. (Includes sub-schools like Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita).
- Samkhya: Dualistic philosophy distinguishing Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter).
- Yoga: Practical path for self-realization through meditation and physical postures, based on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.
- Nyaya: School of logic and epistemology.
- Vaisheshika: School of atomism and pluralistic realism, postulating atomic theory of the universe.
- Nastika (Heterodox) Schools (not recognizing the authority of Vedas):
- Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka (Lokayata).