The Mughal Empire

1. Introduction to the Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire was a prominent power in the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th century to the mid-19th century.
• Founded by Babur in 1526, after defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.
• The term 'Mughal' is derived from 'Mongol', as Babur was a descendant of Timur (from his father's side) and Genghis Khan (from his mother's side).
• The empire is known for its extensive territorial control, efficient administration, military prowess, and rich cultural synthesis (Persian, Central Asian, and Indian influences).

2. Major Mughal Emperors and their Contributions

2.1. Babur (1526-1530 CE)

• Founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
• Key Battles:
  • First Battle of Panipat (1526): Defeated Ibrahim Lodi, establishing Mughal rule in Delhi and Agra. Utilized superior artillery and military tactics (Tughluma).
  • Battle of Khanwa (1527): Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar and his Rajput confederacy, securing his position in India. Declared himself 'Ghazi'.
  • Battle of Chanderi (1528): Defeated Medini Rai of Malwa.
  • Battle of Ghagra (1529): Defeated the Afghan confederacy led by Mahmud Lodi.
• Literary Work: Wrote his autobiography, 'Tuzuk-i-Baburi' (Baburnama) in Chagatai Turkish, providing valuable insights into his life, observations, and the flora and fauna of India.
• Laid the foundation for a centralized administration and introduced a new mode of warfare with gunpowder and artillery.

2.2. Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556 CE)

• Succeeded Babur in 1530.
• Faced challenges from Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri.
• Battles against Sher Shah Suri:
  • Battle of Chausa (1539): Defeated by Sher Shah Suri.
  • Battle of Kannauj/Bilgram (1540): Decisive defeat leading to Humayun's exile for 15 years.
• During exile, took refuge in Persia, which influenced later Mughal art and culture.
• Regained the throne in 1555 after defeating Sikandar Shah Suri in the Battle of Sirhind, taking advantage of the Sur Empire's decline.
• Died in 1556 from a fall from his library stairs.
• Known for laying the foundation of Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, a precursor to Mughal architecture.

2.3. Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545 CE) - Interregnum

• Though not a Mughal, his administrative reforms significantly influenced Akbar.
• Established the Suri Empire, a period of second Afghan Empire.
• Reforms:
  • Centralized Administration: Divided empire into 47 Sarkars, further into Parganas.
  • Land Revenue System: Introduced a standardized system based on land measurement and soil quality (Zabti system).
  • Currency Reforms: Standardized the silver Rupiya and copper Dam.
  • Infrastructure: Built roads (e.g., Grand Trunk Road), established 'sarais' (inns) for travellers and improved postal system.
  • Judicial System: Emphasized justice and appointed Qazis.
  • Military Reforms: Introduced branding of horses (dagh) and descriptive rolls of soldiers (chehra) borrowed from Alauddin Khalji.

2.4. Akbar (1556-1605 CE) - The Great Mughal

• Ascended the throne at 13 under the regency of Bairam Khan.
• Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Bairam Khan defeated Hemu, securing Mughal rule.
• Military Conquests and Expansion: Expanded the empire significantly, including Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, Sindh, and parts of the Deccan.
• Administrative Reforms:
  • Mansabdari System: A system of military and civil ranking where every official was assigned a 'mansab' (rank) based on 'zat' (personal status) and 'sawar' (number of cavalrymen to be maintained). Integrated diverse groups into the administration.
  • Land Revenue (Zabt/Dahsala System): Introduced by Raja Todar Mal. Fixed revenue based on average produce of the past ten years. Land classified into Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar based on cultivation.
  • Provincial Administration: Divided empire into 'subahs' (provinces), each headed by a 'subahdar'.
• Religious Policy ('Sulh-i-Kul' - universal peace):
  • Abolished Jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims) in 1564 and pilgrimage tax.
  • Established Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri for inter-religious discussions.
  • Propounded Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith) in 1582, a syncretic religion focusing on one God and incorporating good points from all religions.
  • Formed matrimonial alliances with Rajputs and gave them high positions.
• Cultural Contributions: Patronized art, literature, and architecture. Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Buland Darwaza are notable. Initiated the translation of Sanskrit texts into Persian.
• **A'in-i-Akbari** and **Akbarnama** by Abul Fazl provide detailed accounts of his administration and reign.

2.5. Jahangir (1605-1627 CE)

• Continued Akbar's policies of religious tolerance.
• Art and Architecture: His reign saw the zenith of Mughal painting, with emphasis on naturalistic elements, portraiture, and studies of flora and fauna. Ustad Mansur was a famous painter.
• Literary Work: Wrote his memoirs, 'Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri'.
• Lost Kandahar to Safavids (1622).
• Influence of his wife, Nur Jahan, was significant in court politics.
• Granted trading rights to the British East India Company (Sir Thomas Roe visited his court).

2.6. Shah Jahan (1628-1658 CE)

• His reign is considered the golden age of Mughal architecture.
• Architectural Masterpieces:
  • Taj Mahal: Built in Agra for his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
  • Red Fort (Delhi): Includes Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas.
  • Jama Masjid (Delhi)
  • Shalimar Bagh (Lahore)
  • Peacock Throne (later taken by Nadir Shah).
• Focused on grand structures, often with white marble.
• Deccan policy was more successful, annexed Ahmednagar.
• Faced succession war among his sons towards the end of his reign.

2.7. Aurangzeb (1658-1707 CE)

• The last of the 'Great Mughals'.
• Expanded the empire to its largest territorial extent (from Kashmir in the north to the Carnatic in the south).
• Religious Policy: Marked by increased orthodoxy.
  • Re-imposed Jizya on non-Muslims (1679).
  • Destroyed several Hindu temples.
  • Suppressed celebrations of festivals like Holi and Muharram.
• Faced numerous rebellions: Marathas (under Shivaji), Sikhs, Jats, Satnamis, Rajputs.
• His prolonged Deccan campaigns drained the imperial treasury and led to the empire's over-extension.
• His policies contributed significantly to the decline of the empire.

2.8. Later Mughals (1707-1857 CE)

• After Aurangzeb's death, a rapid decline began due to weak successors, court intrigues, and rise of regional powers.
• Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712): Tried to restore stability but faced challenges.
• Muhammad Shah 'Rangila' (1719-1748): Faced Nadir Shah's invasion (1739), which further weakened the empire and led to the loss of the Peacock Throne and Kohinoor diamond.
• Shah Alam II (1759-1806): Lost Battle of Buxar (1764) to the British, signifying growing British dominance.
• Bahadur Shah II / Zafar (1837-1857): Last Mughal Emperor, exiled by the British after the 1857 Revolt, marking the end of the Mughal dynasty.

3. Mughal Administration

3.1. Central Administration

• Emperor: Supreme authority.
• Wazir/Diwan: Prime Minister and head of revenue/finance.
• Mir Bakshi: Head of military department, also oversaw intelligence (Barids and Waqia Navis).
• Sadr-us-Sadur: Head of religious endowments and charities.
• Mir Saman: Head of imperial household and Karkhanas (factories).
• Qazi-ul-Quzat: Chief Justice.

3.2. Provincial Administration (Subahs)

• Empire divided into provinces called 'Subahs', headed by a Subahdar (Governor).
• Each Subah had its own Diwan (revenue head), Bakshi (military paymaster), Sadr (judicial and religious), and Kotwal (city police chief).
• Subahs were further divided into Sarkars (districts) and then into Parganas (sub-districts).

3.3. Mansabdari System

• Introduced by Akbar, it was a grading system used to fix:
  1. Rank of an officer (Mansabdar).
  2. His salary.
  3. The number of cavalrymen (sawar) he was required to maintain.
• Ranks expressed in terms of 'Zat' and 'Sawar'. Zat indicated personal status, Sawar indicated military contingent.
• Mansabdars were paid either in cash (naqdi) or through revenue assignments called Jagirs (Jagirdari System).
• It led to a hierarchical bureaucracy and a disciplined army.

3.4. Land Revenue System

• Zabt System (Dahsala System): Introduced by Todar Mal under Akbar. Based on measurement of land and assessment of average produce over 10 years. Revenue was fixed as a percentage of the produce (usually one-third).
• Different Methods: Batai/Galla Baksh (crop division), Kankut (estimation of produce), Nasaq (assessment based on past experience).
• Aimed to ensure stability for farmers and discourage corruption.

4. Economy, Trade and Commerce

• Agriculture: Primary economic activity, supported by an efficient land revenue system.
• Crafts and Industries: Textile production (cotton, silk), indigo, saltpetre, metalwork, shipbuilding. Indian textiles were a major export.
• Currency: Standardized silver Rupiya and copper Dam. High purity of coinage until the early 18th century.
• Trade Networks:
  • Inland Trade: Well-developed, facilitated by improved roads (Sher Shah's legacy), serais (inns), and a robust Hundi (letter of credit) system managed by Sarrafs (bankers).
  • Foreign Trade: India had a favorable balance of trade, exporting textiles, spices, indigo, saltpetre, and precious stones. Imports included horses, precious metals (gold and silver to balance trade), furs, and luxury items.
  • European Traders: Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French established trading posts. They initially sought spices but later focused on Indian textiles, driving up demand.
  • Major Trading Hubs: Surat, Masulipatam, Hooghly, Agra, Lahore.
• The Mughal state generally promoted commerce through law and order, standardized currency, and infrastructure.

5. Art, Architecture and Culture

5.1. Architecture

• A unique blend of Persian, Central Asian, and indigenous Indian styles.
• Key Features: Use of red sandstone (early Mughal), white marble (later Mughal), domes, arches, minarets, symmetrical layouts, charbagh (four-part garden) style.
• Important Monuments:
  • Humayun's Tomb (Delhi): Prototype of Taj Mahal, first garden-tomb.
  • Agra Fort: Built by Akbar, using red sandstone.
  • Fatehpur Sikri: Built by Akbar, includes Buland Darwaza, Jami Masjid, Panch Mahal, Ibadat Khana.
  • Akbar's Tomb (Sikandra)
  • Itimad-ud-Daula's Tomb (Agra): Built by Nur Jahan, features 'Pietra Dura' inlay work.
  • Taj Mahal (Agra): Built by Shah Jahan, epitome of Mughal architecture.
  • Red Fort & Jama Masjid (Delhi): Built by Shah Jahan.

5.2. Painting

• Mughal painting evolved from Persian miniature painting, influenced by Indian styles.
• Humayun: Brought Persian artists (Mir Sayyid Ali, Abd al-Samad) to India.
• Akbar: Established a royal atelier, focused on illustrated manuscripts (e.g., Hamzanama). Depicted court scenes, historical events, nature.
• Jahangir: Zenith of Mughal painting. Emphasis on naturalism, portraiture, birds, and animals (e.g., Ustad Mansur, Bishan Das).
• Shah Jahan: Continued patronage, but with more idealization and stylization.
• Mughal paintings often depicted imperial grandeur, court life, hunting scenes, and flora/fauna.

5.3. Literature

• Persian was the official court language.
• Notable Works:
  • Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi): Babur's autobiography in Turkish.
  • Humayun-nama: Biography of Humayun by Gulbadan Begum (Humayun's sister).
  • Akbarnama & A'in-i-Akbari: By Abul Fazl, providing detailed history and administration of Akbar's reign.
  • Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Jahangir's memoirs.
• Growth of regional languages like Hindi and Urdu. Urdu developed as a common language, blending Persian, Arabic, and local dialects.
• Translation of Sanskrit texts into Persian was encouraged.

6. Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Aurangzeb's Policies:
  • Religious Orthodoxy: Re-imposition of Jizya and destruction of temples alienated Rajputs and other non-Muslims, leading to widespread rebellions (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats).
  • Deccan Policy: Prolonged and costly campaigns in the Deccan drained resources and manpower, creating a fiscal crisis.
• Weak Successors: The Later Mughals were weak, inefficient, and often puppets in the hands of powerful nobles.
• War of Succession: Frequent and destructive wars of succession after Aurangzeb's death destabilized the empire.
• Rise of Independent Regional States: Governors (Subahdars) of provinces like Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad asserted independence. Marathas grew powerful, challenging Mughal authority.
• Jagirdari Crisis: Shortage of viable Jagirs due to expansion, coupled with corruption, led to a crisis in the Mansabdari system.
• Foreign Invasions:
  • Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739): Sacked Delhi, took immense wealth (Peacock Throne, Kohinoor diamond), and exposed the military weakness of the Mughals.
  • Ahmad Shah Abdali's Invasions: Further weakened the empire.
• Emergence of European Trading Companies: European powers, particularly the British East India Company, gradually gained political and economic control, exploiting the internal weaknesses of the empire.
• Economic Stagnation: Despite initial prosperity, the burden of excessive taxation and constant warfare led to agrarian distress.

7. Significance and Legacy

• Political Unification: United a large part of the Indian subcontinent under a single administration.
• Administrative System: Developed a highly centralized and efficient administrative structure (Mansabdari, Zabt) that influenced later Indian states.
• Cultural Synthesis: Fostered a vibrant synthesis of Indo-Persian culture, particularly visible in art, architecture, literature, and language (Urdu).
• Economic Prosperity: Promoted trade and commerce, leading to significant economic growth during its zenith.
• Artistic and Architectural Heritage: Left an unparalleled legacy of magnificent monuments (Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Fatehpur Sikri) and a distinctive school of painting.
• Legal and Judicial Framework: Contributed to the development of a structured legal system.